B.Ed. Special Education HI Notes –PAPER A1 HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT, Unit 4: Early Adolescence (From nine years to eighteen years)

Table of Contents

4.1 Emerging capabilities across domains of physical and social emotional

Understanding the Emerging Capabilities in Early Adolescence

Early adolescence, covering the age group from 9 to 18 years, is a time of major transformation in every aspect of human development. During this period, children experience a series of physical, social, and emotional changes that help them transition from childhood into adulthood. These changes are strongly influenced by both biological and environmental factors. The capabilities that emerge in the domains of physical and social-emotional development during these years lay the foundation for adult functioning.

Physical Development in Early Adolescence

Puberty and Biological Changes

The most visible sign of physical development in early adolescence is the onset of puberty. This is a biological process triggered by hormonal changes in the body, particularly the release of sex hormones like estrogen in girls and testosterone in boys. These hormones are responsible for initiating a series of body changes.

In girls, puberty usually starts between ages 9 and 13. The first signs include breast development, the appearance of pubic and underarm hair, growth spurts, and eventually, the beginning of menstruation (menarche).
In boys, puberty tends to begin between ages 11 and 15. The key changes include growth of the testes and penis, deepening of the voice, development of muscle mass, facial and pubic hair growth, and increased height.

Growth Patterns

Adolescents experience a period of rapid physical growth commonly referred to as the “growth spurt.” This phase typically lasts for 2 to 3 years and varies between individuals in terms of timing and intensity.

Height and weight increase rapidly.
Bones grow in length and density.
Muscle development becomes more pronounced, especially in boys.
Hands and feet may grow faster than the rest of the body, leading to temporary clumsiness.

Motor Development

During adolescence, both gross motor skills (involving large body movements like running, jumping) and fine motor skills (involving small movements like writing, drawing) continue to improve.

Increased strength, coordination, and stamina support improved athletic performance.
Adolescents are able to participate in more structured physical activities and competitive sports.
Motor skills become more refined and controlled.

Brain Development

Brain development is a significant but less visible aspect of physical growth in adolescence.

The prefrontal cortex, which controls decision-making, planning, and impulse control, is still maturing.
The limbic system, which handles emotional responses, develops earlier than the prefrontal cortex, which sometimes leads to emotionally driven behavior.
Myelination (the process of coating neurons with a fatty sheath) increases, improving the speed of nerve impulses and thinking.
Synaptic pruning removes unused neural connections, making the brain more efficient.

Changes in Sleep Patterns

Adolescents often experience changes in their sleep-wake cycles, a phenomenon known as delayed sleep phase. This means they tend to feel sleepy later at night and prefer waking up late in the morning. However, academic demands and social responsibilities often interfere with adequate rest.

Recommended sleep duration for adolescents is 8–10 hours per night.
Sleep deprivation can negatively affect concentration, mood, and physical health.

Nutritional Needs

Due to increased growth, adolescents need more calories, proteins, calcium, and iron than at any other time except infancy.

Girls require more iron due to menstruation.
Calcium intake is crucial for bone development.
Poor dietary habits like skipping meals, over-reliance on junk food, or crash dieting are common and may lead to obesity, eating disorders, or malnutrition.

Onset of Risk Behaviors

With increasing physical independence and peer interaction, adolescents may engage in risk-taking behaviors.

Use of tobacco, alcohol, and other substances.
Early or unsafe sexual activity.
Poor dietary and exercise habits.
These behaviors can be influenced by peer pressure, low self-esteem, lack of awareness, or inadequate parental guidance.

Social and Emotional Development in Early Adolescence

The social and emotional development of adolescents is complex and dynamic. This stage is characterized by increased emotional sensitivity, growing self-awareness, changing social relationships, and the gradual formation of a stable identity. These developments influence how adolescents view themselves, interact with others, and make decisions.

Emotional Changes and Self-Understanding

Adolescents begin to experience more intense and varied emotions compared to earlier childhood. Their emotional experiences are deeply tied to physical changes, social interactions, and cognitive growth.

Adolescents often go through mood swings, irritability, and heightened emotional responses due to hormonal fluctuations.
They develop a more complex and abstract understanding of feelings—such as guilt, embarrassment, pride, and shame.
Self-awareness increases, and adolescents begin to think more about who they are, how others see them, and their place in the world.
Adolescents often develop self-consciousness and may become overly focused on their appearance or perceived flaws.

Development of Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

Self-concept becomes more detailed and includes ideas related to personality, values, social roles, and future goals.

Adolescents ask questions such as: “Who am I?”, “What do I believe in?”, “What is my role in society?”
They explore gender identity, cultural background, personal interests, and ambitions.
Self-esteem may fluctuate due to academic pressure, body image, peer comparison, and family expectations.
Positive reinforcement from parents, teachers, and peers helps in building confidence and a strong sense of identity.

Peer Relationships and Social Belonging

During adolescence, peer groups play a central role in social development.

Adolescents become more emotionally connected to friends than in earlier childhood.
Friendships are based on shared values, emotional support, and trust, rather than proximity or convenience.
Peer pressure becomes stronger, influencing decisions about clothing, hobbies, academic effort, and risky behavior.
The desire for social acceptance and group identity is strong.
Adolescents may experience peer conflicts, bullying, or exclusion, which can affect mental health and behavior.

Family Relationships and Desire for Independence

Adolescents begin to seek more independence and autonomy in decision-making.

Conflicts with parents or caregivers may increase as adolescents begin to question rules, expectations, and authority.
Adolescents may show rebellious behavior or withdraw emotionally from the family.
Despite these changes, a secure and supportive family relationship remains crucial for healthy emotional development.
Open communication, empathy, and consistent boundaries help reduce conflict and increase trust.

Romantic Relationships and Emerging Intimacy

As social and emotional awareness increases, adolescents may begin to form romantic attachments.

Early relationships are often brief but can be emotionally intense.
These experiences help adolescents explore emotional intimacy, attraction, and mutual respect.
Romantic relationships contribute to identity development and social learning.
However, breakups, unrequited feelings, or peer gossip may lead to emotional distress.

Moral Development and Value Formation

Adolescents begin to form their own views on morality, justice, and personal responsibility.

They transition from concrete rules to abstract moral reasoning, understanding fairness, rights, and social justice.
They may question existing rules or beliefs inherited from family or culture.
Participation in community service, social activism, or school leadership is common.
They begin to choose friends and actions based on shared values rather than convenience.

Development of Empathy and Social Perspective-Taking

Social-emotional maturity includes being able to understand others’ feelings and perspectives.

Adolescents improve their capacity for empathy, compassion, and perspective-taking.
They become more sensitive to the emotional needs of peers, family, and the larger community.
This skill supports conflict resolution, cooperation, and emotional bonding.

Coping Skills and Emotional Regulation

Adolescents learn to manage their feelings more independently.

They begin using coping strategies like journaling, talking to friends, or engaging in hobbies.
Some adolescents may struggle with emotional regulation and show signs of anxiety, depression, or aggression.
Supportive adults, counseling, and emotional education can help them develop resilience and healthy emotional responses.

4.2 Emerging capabilities across domains related to cognition – metacognition, creativity, ethics

Introduction to Emerging Capabilities in Cognition during Early Adolescence

Early adolescence is a critical period of development that brings significant cognitive growth. Between the ages of 9 to 18 years, children transition into more mature stages of thinking and reasoning. This phase is marked by enhanced abilities to process information, solve complex problems, reflect on personal learning, express originality, and understand social and moral issues.

Three major cognitive domains that show strong development during early adolescence are:

Metacognition – the awareness and regulation of one’s own thinking
Creativity – the capacity to produce original and valuable ideas
Ethics – the understanding of moral principles and values

These domains not only influence academic learning but also help shape adolescents’ identity, emotional well-being, and social behavior. Let us explore each domain in detail.

Metacognition in Early Adolescence

Meaning and Importance of Metacognition
Metacognition refers to “thinking about thinking.” It is the ability to reflect on and control one’s own thought processes. This includes understanding how one learns, planning how to approach learning tasks, monitoring progress, and evaluating the results.

In early adolescence, children develop deeper self-awareness and begin to understand how their mind works. This helps them become more independent learners, capable of making decisions about how to study or solve problems.

Key Features of Metacognitive Growth

Self-awareness of Learning
- Adolescents can now identify what they know and what they don’t.
- They become aware of their strengths and weaknesses in learning.
Strategic Thinking
- They begin using strategies such as summarizing, organizing, questioning, or reviewing while learning.
Goal Setting and Planning
- They are capable of setting realistic goals and planning steps to achieve them.
Self-monitoring and Reflection
- They check their own understanding while doing tasks and adjust their approach if needed.

Stages of Metacognitive Development

Around 9–12 years: Basic awareness begins; children start talking about what helps them learn.
Around 13–15 years: Strategy use becomes more organized and purposeful.
Around 16–18 years: Advanced reflection, planning for long-term goals, and evaluation of strategies.

Examples of Metacognition in Adolescents

A student realizing that rereading notes doesn’t help them understand, so they try making a mind map instead.
Planning the steps for completing a science project and checking progress along the way.
Reflecting after an exam and thinking about how to improve next time.

Educational Importance

Enhances academic performance
Encourages responsibility for learning
Improves problem-solving skills
Supports lifelong learning and adaptability

Ways to Support Metacognition in Adolescents

Encourage students to think aloud while solving problems.
Teach them how to plan, monitor, and review their work.
Use questions like “What strategy did you use?” or “How can you improve next time?”
Provide feedback that focuses on the process, not just the result.
Allow students to set learning goals and track their progress.

Creativity in Early Adolescence

Meaning of Creativity
Creativity is the mental ability to generate novel, imaginative, and useful ideas or solutions. It involves original thinking, flexibility in thought, and expression of one’s ideas in various forms.

During early adolescence, creativity is expressed more actively due to developing cognitive abilities and emotional maturity. Adolescents begin to form independent opinions, challenge traditional norms, and enjoy exploring new possibilities.

Characteristics of Adolescent Creativity

Increased curiosity and imagination
Ability to look at problems from multiple angles
Willingness to take intellectual risks
Desire for self-expression through various media

Cognitive Features That Support Creativity

Abstract Thinking
- Ability to think about concepts not directly related to real-world experiences
Symbolic Thinking
- Use of symbols and metaphors in writing, art, and communication
Divergent Thinking
- Capacity to generate many possible solutions to a problem
Fluency and Flexibility
- Ability to switch between ideas and adapt quickly

Areas of Creative Expression

Language: Writing stories, poetry, or plays
Visual Arts: Drawing, painting, designing
Performing Arts: Dance, music, theatre
Technology: Coding, app development, digital media
Problem-Solving: Inventing new ideas, social or scientific solutions

Examples of Creative Thinking in Adolescents

Designing a unique science experiment
Creating a comic strip to explain a historical event
Writing lyrics or composing music to express emotions
Developing an idea for a community improvement project

Role of Environment in Creativity Development

A supportive and non-judgmental atmosphere boosts creative confidence.
Exposure to diverse fields such as arts, music, technology, and debates nurtures creativity.
Freedom to experiment and fail encourages risk-taking and innovation.

How Teachers and Parents Can Foster Creativity

Provide open-ended assignments and encourage out-of-the-box thinking
Use project-based learning and allow students to explore their interests
Celebrate uniqueness and different perspectives
Avoid excessive control or pressure for correct answers
Encourage collaboration, discussion, and exploration

Ethics in Early Adolescence

Meaning of Ethics
Ethics refers to the understanding of right and wrong, good and bad, justice, fairness, responsibility, and moral values. In early adolescence, ethical development is a critical part of cognitive and social-emotional growth. Adolescents begin to reflect more deeply on their values, behavior, and the consequences of their actions.

This stage is influenced by internal factors like reasoning abilities and empathy, and external factors like family values, peer influence, school environment, and media exposure.

Developmental Characteristics of Ethical Thinking in Adolescents

Moral Reasoning Becomes Abstract
- Children move beyond simple rules and rewards.
- They begin to ask “Why is this right or wrong?”
- They think about fairness, justice, and the impact of actions on others.
Perspective Taking
- Adolescents develop the ability to see situations from others’ point of view.
- They start understanding different social roles and cultural beliefs.
Values and Beliefs Formation
- They begin to form personal values.
- These may sometimes conflict with values taught by parents or society, leading to questioning and debates.
Increased Sense of Responsibility
- They show concern for others’ welfare.
- They are more aware of ethical issues in real life, such as honesty, respect, bullying, discrimination, and justice.

Stages of Ethical Development (Based on Kohlberg’s Theory)

Pre-conventional Stage (typically before age 9)
- Right and wrong are based on avoiding punishment or gaining rewards.
Conventional Stage (common in early adolescence)
- Morality is based on social approval, rules, and law.
- Adolescents follow rules to maintain order and gain acceptance.
Post-conventional Stage (may begin in late adolescence or adulthood)
- Morality is based on universal ethical principles.
- Individuals may question laws if they feel they are unjust.

Ethical Issues Commonly Faced by Adolescents

Peer pressure and honesty in friendships
Academic cheating and integrity
Responsibility towards family and community
Understanding fairness and equality
Respect for differences in gender, religion, caste, or ability
Navigating social media responsibly

Examples of Ethical Decision-Making in Adolescents

Choosing not to cheat in an exam even when others are doing it
Standing up against bullying in school
Reporting a wrong act instead of staying silent
Donating to a cause or volunteering in the community
Refusing to participate in gossip or harmful social behavior

Role of Schools and Families in Ethical Development

Open Discussion: Encourage adolescents to express and reflect on moral dilemmas.
Role Models: Adults should model honest and respectful behavior.
Clear Expectations: Teach the importance of responsibility, honesty, and fairness.
Safe Environment: Allow students to explore different opinions without fear of punishment.
Community Service: Involve students in activities that promote empathy, service, and justice.

How Teachers Can Support Ethical Thinking

Use real-life scenarios to teach moral reasoning.
Create opportunities for group discussions on current ethical issues.
Integrate value-based education in subjects and activities.
Encourage reflection after group activities or conflicts.
Promote peer mentoring and cooperative learning.

Integration of Metacognition, Creativity, and Ethics

These three domains do not grow in isolation. They are closely connected and influence each other in real-life situations:

Metacognition helps adolescents reflect on their actions and make ethical choices.
Creativity supports the generation of solutions to moral or social issues.
Ethics gives direction to both thinking and creative efforts by guiding them with values.

For example, when a student creates a campaign for environmental awareness, they use creativity to design it, metacognition to plan and evaluate its effectiveness, and ethics to support the values of responsibility and care for nature.

4.3 Issues related to puberty

Introduction to Puberty

Puberty is a critical stage of human development that takes place during early adolescence, usually between the ages of 9 to 18 years. It is a biological and psychological process during which a child’s body and mind begin to transition toward adulthood. This period is marked by rapid and noticeable physical, emotional, social, and sexual development, all driven primarily by hormonal changes in the body.

During puberty, the endocrine system becomes highly active, releasing hormones such as estrogen in girls and testosterone in boys, which trigger changes in the body. These changes prepare the adolescent for reproductive capability and adult responsibilities, but they also give rise to a range of developmental challenges or issues that need to be carefully understood and addressed.

Onset and Duration of Puberty

The onset of puberty varies widely depending on genetic, nutritional, environmental, and psychological factors.

In girls, puberty usually begins between 8 and 13 years of age.
In boys, it typically begins between 9 and 14 years of age.

The complete transition may take 4 to 6 years, during which several issues can arise due to the complexity and intensity of the changes.

Categories of Issues Related to Puberty

The issues that emerge during puberty can be broadly categorized into the following areas:

Physical issues
Emotional and psychological issues
Social issues
Sexual and reproductive health concerns
Behavioral issues
Special considerations for children with disabilities

Each category includes several sub-issues that affect the adolescent’s development, well-being, and functioning in different environments such as school, family, and peer groups.

Physical Issues during Puberty

Growth spurts and physical changes

One of the most noticeable features of puberty is the growth spurt. Adolescents experience rapid increases in height and weight, as well as changes in body proportions.

Boys may grow broader shoulders, develop more muscle mass, and experience deepening of the voice.
Girls develop wider hips, begin breast development, and start menstruation.

These changes can be exciting but also stressful, especially if they occur earlier or later than among peers.

Skin and hair changes

Due to increased activity of oil glands:

Adolescents may develop acne or pimples.
Hair growth increases on the face, arms, legs, and pubic areas.
Body odor becomes stronger, requiring proper hygiene habits.

These issues can affect their self-image and make them self-conscious.

Menstrual problems in girls

Menstruation is a major milestone in a girl’s life, but it can bring many challenges such as:

Irregular cycles in the initial months or years
Painful cramps (dysmenorrhea)
Mood swings
Lack of awareness about hygiene practices

These problems can affect daily routines, school attendance, and emotional stability.

Sexual development and physical maturity

The development of secondary sexual characteristics may raise questions, curiosity, or confusion in adolescents.

Boys experience erections and may have nocturnal emissions (wet dreams), which may be embarrassing.
Girls may become more aware of their bodies and appearance.

If proper guidance is not provided, adolescents may feel ashamed, guilty, or fearful about these natural processes.

Emotional and Psychological Issues during Puberty

Mood swings and emotional sensitivity

Due to hormonal fluctuations, adolescents may:

Feel irritable, sad, or angry without any major reason
Cry easily or get upset over minor problems
Have emotional outbursts

Such mood changes may cause misunderstandings with parents and teachers.

Anxiety and insecurity

Adolescents may begin to:

Worry about their appearance and body image
Compare themselves with peers
Feel insecure if they are early or late in maturing

This anxiety can lead to low self-esteem and even withdrawal from social activities.

Stress related to academic and social expectations

As adolescents progress in school, they face:

Increasing academic pressure
Need to make career choices
Desire to be accepted in peer groups

These pressures may lead to stress, poor performance, or sleep disturbances.

Identity confusion

Adolescents begin to question:

Who am I?
What do I want to become?
Where do I belong?

This search for identity may lead to conflicts with family values, experimentation, or rebellious behavior.

Social Issues during Puberty

Changing relationships with parents

Adolescents often seek independence and autonomy.
They may disagree with parents and challenge authority more frequently.
There is often a generation gap, where adolescents feel that adults do not understand their feelings or experiences.

This change in the parent-child dynamic may result in:

Increased conflict and arguments
Miscommunication
A sense of emotional distance

Influence of peer group

Peer groups become very important during puberty.
Adolescents seek acceptance, popularity, and approval from friends.
They may imitate peers in dress, speech, and behavior.

This can lead to both positive and negative outcomes:

Positive: development of social skills, confidence, and sense of belonging.
Negative: peer pressure, risky behaviors (smoking, alcohol), and involvement in unsuitable activities.

Bullying and social anxiety

Physical and emotional changes can make adolescents targets of bullying, especially if they look different.
Adolescents with special needs are more vulnerable to being teased or excluded.
This can lead to fear, loneliness, school refusal, or depression.

Romantic interests and attraction

Adolescents begin to feel sexual attraction and interest in romantic relationships.
These feelings are normal but can cause confusion, distraction, or emotional distress.
Without proper guidance, it may result in risky behavior or unhealthy relationships.

Sexual and Reproductive Health Issues

Lack of sex education

In many settings, adolescents do not receive accurate or appropriate information about sexual development.
This may lead to myths, misconceptions, and unsafe behavior.

Curiosity about sex

Adolescents may try to explore sexual content online or through peer discussions, which are often misleading or inappropriate.
This curiosity is natural but must be addressed through open, age-appropriate discussions.

Risk of early sexual activity

Some adolescents may engage in sexual activity at an early age due to peer pressure or lack of awareness.
This increases the risk of:
- Unwanted pregnancies
- Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
- Emotional trauma

Menstrual health and shame

In many cultures, menstruation is still a taboo topic, leading to shame and poor hygiene among girls.
Girls may not have access to sanitary products, leading to health issues and absenteeism from school.

Gender identity and sexual orientation

Some adolescents may begin to question their gender identity or feel attracted to the same sex.
Without a supportive environment, this can lead to anxiety, confusion, and social rejection.

Behavioral Issues during Puberty

Aggression and irritability

Adolescents may express anger more easily.
They may argue, shout, or disobey rules, especially if they feel misunderstood.

Risk-taking behavior

Many adolescents engage in impulsive or risky activities, such as:
- Speeding on bikes
- Trying alcohol or cigarettes
- Skipping school
- Experimenting with substances
These behaviors are often a way to prove independence or gain peer approval.

Rebellion and defiance

Adolescents may challenge authority at home or school.
They may refuse to follow rules, display a negative attitude, or break curfews.

Lack of focus and motivation

Due to emotional and physical changes, adolescents may:
- Lose interest in studies or hobbies
- Struggle with time management
- Become easily distracted or tired

This can affect their academic performance and future planning.

Special Considerations: Issues Related to Puberty in Children with Disabilities

Children with disabilities (such as Intellectual Disability, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Learning Disability, Hearing Impairment, Visual Impairment, or Multiple Disabilities) face unique challenges during puberty. They may experience the same physical changes, but their understanding, coping, and behavior can be very different.

Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (ID/MR)

Lack of understanding of body changes

Children with ID may not fully understand the physical and emotional changes happening in their bodies.
They may become confused or scared when they notice changes such as hair growth, voice change, or menstruation.

Poor hygiene and self-care skills

They may need structured training in managing personal hygiene during puberty, such as:
- Using sanitary napkins
- Bathing regularly
- Managing body odor

Inappropriate social behavior

Due to limited understanding, they may touch private parts in public, remove clothes, or engage in socially inappropriate behavior.
They may also lack awareness of privacy rules, leading to embarrassment or negative reactions from others.

Vulnerability to abuse

Adolescents with ID are more vulnerable to sexual abuse because they may not understand the concept of “good touch and bad touch”.
They may not know how to report inappropriate behavior or may fear consequences.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Difficulty in coping with sensory and emotional changes

Children with autism often have sensory sensitivities. Puberty can make these worse:
- Sensitivity to textures (clothing, sanitary pads)
- Discomfort with new smells (body odor, perfumes)
- Heightened emotional reactions

Disruption of routine

Puberty introduces unpredictable changes in the body and emotions, which can be disturbing for children with autism who rely on routine.

Communication difficulties

They may not be able to express discomfort or confusion about bodily changes.
Need for visual aids, social stories, and structured sex education in simple formats.

Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD)

Frustration due to comparison with peers

Adolescents with SLD may feel less confident due to academic struggles and may feel isolated or inferior when they see peers developing faster physically or socially.

Low self-esteem

Body image issues combined with learning difficulties may lead to depression or withdrawal.

Lack of sex education support

Schools may not offer tailored sex education for students with SLD, leaving them unaware and prone to confusion or misinformation.

Hearing Impairment (HI)

Lack of access to information

If health and puberty-related information is not presented in sign language or visual format, adolescents with HI may remain uninformed.

Difficulty in expressing questions or doubts

They may have questions about puberty but may not feel confident in asking due to communication barriers.

Risk of social isolation

Being left out of discussions or group sessions about puberty may lead to misconceptions and loneliness.

Visual Impairment (VI)

Limited visual feedback on body changes

Adolescents with VI may not be aware of physical changes such as pimples, growth of facial hair, or menstruation stains.

Increased dependence

They may feel more dependent on others for managing hygiene, grooming, or clothing, which can reduce confidence.

Need for tactile and verbal instruction

Teaching about puberty must involve clear verbal guidance and safe tactile experiences (e.g., handling sanitary products under supervision) to promote independence.

Multiple Disabilities (MD)

Complex needs and delayed development

Adolescents with MD may experience delays in both physical and emotional understanding of puberty.
They often require individualized support plans, including:
- Personal care training
- Counseling
- Modified communication techniques

Social rejection and isolation

Due to combined challenges, they may face more bullying, misunderstanding, and exclusion from peer groups.

Difficulty accessing services

Families of children with MD often struggle to access healthcare, hygiene support, and inclusive education on puberty and sexuality.

The Role of Teachers and Parents

To address these puberty-related issues in both typically developing adolescents and those with disabilities:

Teachers should:
- Provide age-appropriate, clear, and inclusive puberty education.
- Use visual aids, role play, and repetition to reinforce concepts.
- Respect cultural and individual values.
Parents should:
- Start open conversations early.
- Encourage questions without shame or fear.
- Reinforce hygiene routines and social boundaries.
Health professionals should:
- Be involved in awareness programs.
- Offer screenings, counseling, and support for adolescents and families.

4.4 Gender and development

Gender and Development

Gender and development is a critical area of understanding in adolescent growth. It focuses on how gender identity, roles, and social expectations influence the development of individuals during early adolescence (ages 9 to 18). Gender is not only about being male or female biologically but also about how society shapes and assigns roles, behaviors, opportunities, and responsibilities based on that biological identity.

Meaning of Gender

Gender refers to the social and cultural differences between boys and girls, men and women. It includes how people are expected to behave, think, and interact based on whether they are male or female.

Gender is different from sex:

Sex is biological – determined by physical characteristics like reproductive organs, chromosomes, and hormones.
Gender is a social construct – shaped by family, culture, religion, education, media, and traditions.

What is Gender Identity?

Gender identity is a person’s internal sense of who they are – whether they identify as a boy, girl, both, or neither. It develops gradually during childhood and adolescence. Some adolescents may experience a mismatch between their biological sex and their gender identity. This may lead to questioning or exploring their gender.

Examples:

A girl who identifies with traditionally “boyish” traits like rough play, sports, or mechanical toys.
A boy who enjoys activities like dance, singing, or nurturing toys.

These are natural variations and part of the broad spectrum of gender identity.

What are Gender Roles?

Gender roles are behaviors, attitudes, and responsibilities that a society considers appropriate for boys and girls. These are learned from early childhood and are influenced by:

Family expectations (e.g., girls helping in the kitchen, boys repairing things)
School environment (e.g., more male science teachers)
Peer pressure (e.g., boys not showing emotions)
Media portrayal (e.g., girls as nurses, boys as engineers)

Gender roles are not fixed. They can change over time and should not limit a child’s potential.

What is Gender Development?

Gender development means the process by which children learn and internalize the gender roles, behaviors, and expectations of their society. It starts in early childhood but becomes more noticeable and intense during early adolescence (9 to 18 years), when young people go through puberty and begin to form a deeper understanding of their identity.

Gender development includes:

Understanding one’s own gender
Expressing gender through clothing, speech, behavior, and activities
Understanding how society reacts to their gender expression

Gender Development in Early Adolescence (Ages 9–18)

Early adolescence is a sensitive and transformative period in a child’s life. This stage involves major physical, emotional, cognitive, and social changes, many of which are directly influenced by the child’s understanding of gender. Gender development during this period is not just about physical changes but also about forming identity, values, and self-perception.

Let’s explore the major aspects of gender development in this phase.

Biological and Physical Aspects

Biological development during adolescence happens due to hormonal changes that affect the body and behavior. This biological development also plays a role in gender development.

For girls:

Start of menstruation (menarche)
Development of breasts and widening of hips
Growth of body hair
Increase in emotional sensitivity

For boys:

Deepening of voice
Broadening of shoulders
Growth of facial and body hair
Onset of sperm production

These changes may create confusion, curiosity, or anxiety in adolescents, especially if they are not educated or supported about the changes. How adolescents perceive their changing bodies often affects how they feel about their gender.

Psychological and Emotional Aspects

Adolescents begin to form their gender identity in this stage. They may start questioning:

Who am I as a boy or girl?
What does it mean to be a male or female in society?
Am I comfortable with the gender identity assigned at birth?

This emotional process may include:

Curiosity about gender roles and differences
Desire to fit in with peers or resist gender stereotypes
Sensitivity to how others treat them based on gender
Internal conflict if their gender identity differs from societal expectations

Some adolescents may also identify as non-binary, transgender, or gender-fluid. It is essential for caregivers and teachers to provide non-judgmental, respectful, and inclusive environments to support such adolescents.

Cognitive and Moral Development Linked to Gender

As the brain matures, adolescents become capable of:

Abstract thinking: They can now think about complex ideas like equality and justice.
Moral reasoning: They question whether gender rules are fair.
Self-reflection: They evaluate their own feelings and roles.

An adolescent might begin to challenge traditional gender norms. For example:

A girl may want to become a soldier.
A boy may want to pursue nursing or arts.

When they receive encouragement, it helps them grow into confident individuals. But if they face gender discrimination, it may hurt their emotional and academic development.

Social Influences on Gender Development

Gender development during adolescence is not shaped by biology alone. Social factors play a major role in how adolescents understand their gender roles, identity, and behavior. These influences come from family, peers, school, media, religion, and culture.

Role of Family

The family is the first and most influential unit in a child’s life. Parents and caregivers may, knowingly or unknowingly, teach children gender-specific behaviors.

Examples:

Encouraging girls to play with dolls and boys with cars or action figures
Assigning household chores based on gender (e.g., girls cook, boys fix things)
Praising boys for being strong and girls for being quiet or polite

This early gendered socialization shapes a child’s thinking about what is “normal” or “acceptable” for their gender. Adolescents from supportive and open-minded families tend to develop a healthy gender identity, while those from strict or biased families may experience confusion, guilt, or low self-esteem.

Influence of Peers

Peer groups become very important during adolescence. Young people often look to their friends to feel accepted and valued.

Peer pressure can affect gender development in both positive and negative ways:

Peers may tease or bully a boy who likes dancing or a girl who is assertive.
Peer approval may push adolescents to behave in gender-stereotyped ways even if it goes against their real personality.
On the positive side, peers may also support each other in resisting traditional roles and trying new things.

Teachers and adults should observe for signs of peer bullying or exclusion based on gender expression and intervene respectfully.

Role of School

Schools are a place where gender norms can be either challenged or reinforced.

Negative practices:

Gender-biased textbooks (e.g., showing only male scientists or leaders)
Teachers calling on boys more often in math or science
Gender-based division of sports and physical activities

Positive practices:

Mixed-gender group activities
Gender-neutral language and uniforms
Encouraging both boys and girls in all subjects

Inclusive education and gender-sensitive teaching strategies help all children feel safe and respected, regardless of gender.

Influence of Media

Children and adolescents consume large amounts of media through television, films, social media, YouTube, games, etc. These platforms can strongly influence how adolescents view gender.

Media often shows:

Men as strong, powerful, and dominant
Women as beautiful, emotional, and dependent
Certain professions as gender-specific (e.g., engineers as male, teachers as female)

When adolescents constantly watch such content, they may start believing in those gender stereotypes. However, if they are taught media literacy, they can learn to question such portrayals and think critically.

Cultural and Religious Influences

Different cultures and religions have specific beliefs and traditions about gender roles. These influence:

Dress codes
Career choices
Freedom of movement and expression
Expectations from boys and girls

In some communities, girls may face early marriage, or boys may be forced to act ‘tough’. These practices affect education, mental health, and overall development.

Understanding and respecting cultural values is important, but educators should also promote gender equality and children’s rights.

Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotypes are generalized beliefs or assumptions about the characteristics, roles, or behaviors of boys and girls, men and women. These beliefs are often rigid and limiting, and they influence how individuals are treated and what is expected of them.

Examples of common gender stereotypes:

Boys are good at math and science; girls are better at languages and art.
Boys should be aggressive and brave; girls should be shy and obedient.
Boys should not cry; girls should not play rough games.
Leadership roles suit boys; nurturing roles suit girls.

These stereotypes begin in early childhood but become stronger in adolescence, when young people try to fit in with societal expectations and peer norms.

Sources of gender stereotypes:

Family traditions
School practices
Television, films, and advertisements
Social media and online influencers
Religious and cultural teachings

Gender stereotypes are harmful because they do not allow adolescents to express their true interests, talents, and feelings.

Effects of Gender Stereotyping on Adolescents

Low self-esteem: Girls may believe they are not good at science or leadership. Boys may feel weak if they show emotions.
Limited career aspirations: Adolescents may avoid careers that do not match gender expectations, even if they are interested or talented in those areas.
Peer pressure and bullying: Adolescents who break stereotypes may be teased, excluded, or bullied.
Mental health issues: Repeated stress, pressure to fit in, or being rejected for not acting “like a boy” or “like a girl” can lead to anxiety, depression, or identity confusion.
Academic performance: Gender expectations may reduce a child’s motivation or confidence in certain subjects.

Gender Discrimination

Gender discrimination refers to unfair treatment of individuals based on their gender. It occurs when people are denied equal rights, opportunities, or respect just because they are male or female—or because their gender expression does not conform to norms.

Forms of gender discrimination in adolescence:

Girls not allowed to continue school after puberty
Boys discouraged from choosing art, dance, or caregiving professions
Schools that separate boys and girls for unnecessary activities
Unequal participation in leadership roles in class or school councils
Unequal punishment or attention by teachers based on gender

Some adolescents face multiple layers of discrimination, especially if they are girls with disabilities, belong to a marginalized caste, tribe, or religion, or identify as LGBTQ+.

Consequences of gender discrimination:

School dropout, especially among girls
Early and forced marriages
Child labor or domestic work
Lack of confidence and fear of speaking up
Poor physical and mental health
Unsafe environments, especially for girls

4.5 Influence of the environment (social, cultural, political) on the growing child

The period of early adolescence, from 9 to 18 years, is a critical stage of human development. During this time, a child goes through rapid changes in the body, mind, emotions, social interactions, and personality. These changes are not just the result of biological growth, but are also deeply influenced by the environment in which the child is growing. Environment includes all the external factors that impact a child’s development.

The major environmental factors are:

Social environment
Cultural environment
Political environment

These three types of environmental factors affect every aspect of a growing child’s life, including their identity, behavior, values, education, self-image, and opportunities. The influence is even more significant for children with special needs, as the environment can either support their growth or become a barrier.

Below is a detailed explanation of each environmental influence.

Influence of the Social Environment on the Growing Child

The social environment includes the people, relationships, and institutions that a child interacts with in everyday life. It includes family, peers, school, teachers, neighbors, community groups, and the media. These social agents play an important role in shaping the child’s behavior, beliefs, values, and emotional development.

Family Influence

The family is the primary social unit in a child’s life.
In early childhood, children are fully dependent on the family. As they enter adolescence, they begin to explore independence, but still rely on family for emotional and social support.
The type of parenting (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, or neglectful) affects the child’s self-esteem, confidence, and social behavior.
A positive and supportive home environment helps children develop trust, responsibility, and emotional control.
Children with disabilities need more support and care, including specialized attention, understanding, and acceptance from their family members.
Family communication, values, attitudes, and expectations influence academic performance, decision-making, and emotional well-being of the adolescent.

Peer Influence

Peers become increasingly important during adolescence.
Adolescents look to their friends for acceptance, identity, and social comparison.
Peer groups influence language, fashion, behavior, study habits, and personal interests.
Positive peer relationships encourage self-confidence, academic performance, and emotional stability.
Negative peer pressure may lead to risky behaviors, such as substance use, aggression, or dropping out of school.
Adolescents with disabilities may struggle with peer acceptance, face bullying or isolation, and need structured support to build social skills and friendships.

School and Teacher Influence

The school is a formal social institution that shapes intellectual, emotional, and moral development.
Teachers are role models and mentors, influencing the child’s attitudes, discipline, and learning habits.
The school culture (rules, values, teaching style) impacts the student’s social behavior and confidence.
Inclusive schools that accommodate children with disabilities through resource rooms, trained special educators, and inclusive teaching strategies help in their social and academic development.
Positive teacher-student relationships improve learning outcomes and emotional health.
Participation in school activities like sports, debates, and clubs improves communication, leadership, and cooperation skills.

Media and Technology

Adolescents spend a large amount of time engaging with TV, internet, mobile phones, social media, and video games.
Media helps them learn new ideas, current affairs, social norms, and global culture.
It influences their self-image, body image, opinions, and relationships.
Positive content can improve language skills, general knowledge, and awareness.
However, overexposure or exposure to harmful content may lead to low self-esteem, anxiety, unrealistic expectations, and aggression.
Children with disabilities may benefit from assistive technology and educational apps, but also need supervision to avoid cyberbullying or overuse.

Community and Neighborhood

The physical and social quality of the community has a strong impact on adolescents.
Safe neighborhoods with parks, libraries, youth clubs, and sports facilities encourage healthy activities.
Adolescents who grow up in violent or unsafe communities are more likely to experience fear, trauma, or emotional problems.
A supportive community that accepts diversity and promotes inclusion can provide valuable learning and social opportunities.
For children with disabilities, community accessibility, transportation, inclusive programs, and awareness are essential for full participation.

Influence of the Cultural Environment on the Growing Child

The cultural environment refers to the values, beliefs, customs, language, religion, traditions, and social norms shared by a group of people. Culture shapes how individuals think, behave, and interact with the world around them. It influences an adolescent’s identity, lifestyle, behavior, roles, morals, and expectations.

Cultural Beliefs and Values

Culture provides a framework for understanding right and wrong, good and bad, acceptable and unacceptable.
Adolescents learn moral values, ethics, and behavior patterns from their culture.
These values are learned through family teachings, religious practices, stories, rituals, festivals, and daily interactions.
For example, in many Indian cultures, respect for elders and collectivism is emphasized.
Cultural values may influence gender roles, such as expectations from boys and girls regarding behavior, education, and career choices.

Cultural Expectations and Role Models

Adolescents are strongly influenced by what their culture expects from them.
These expectations may include academic performance, career path, social behavior, and lifestyle choices.
Role models like community leaders, spiritual figures, celebrities, or elders guide adolescents in forming their aspirations and identity.
Sometimes, cultural pressure can create stress, especially if the adolescent does not fit into the expected role, such as in the case of gender nonconformity or disability.

Religious and Spiritual Influence

Religion is a part of culture that offers guidance, structure, comfort, and community.
During adolescence, children begin to question and understand spiritual beliefs more deeply.
Religious teachings influence decision-making, moral reasoning, and coping with challenges.
Participation in religious or spiritual practices gives a sense of belonging, discipline, and emotional support.
Children with disabilities may face exclusion from religious practices if the religious setting is not inclusive, which can affect their spiritual and emotional development.

Cultural Attitudes toward Disability

Cultural beliefs play a big role in how disability is understood and accepted in society.
In some cultures, disability is wrongly seen as a curse, punishment, or result of karma, leading to stigma and discrimination.
In other cultures, disability is accepted and accommodated with respect and empathy.
Cultural attitudes affect how families, schools, and communities treat children with special needs.
A positive cultural view of inclusion encourages acceptance and support for adolescents with disabilities, helping them grow with dignity and confidence.

Language and Communication Patterns

Culture influences language use, communication style, and body language.
Adolescents learn how to speak, express emotions, disagree, and solve problems based on their cultural environment.
Language is also closely tied to identity and belonging.
In multilingual cultures, adolescents may switch between languages in different settings, which shapes their cognitive flexibility and social identity.
For children with speech or language disabilities, cultural expectations related to communication can either support or hinder their participation.

Dress, Food, and Celebrations

Cultural environment shapes preferences in clothing, food, music, art, and festivals.
These cultural elements give adolescents a sense of identity and pride.
Participation in cultural festivals and rituals increases social bonding and emotional well-being.
For adolescents with disabilities, it is important that these cultural events are inclusive, so they don’t feel left out or different.

Influence of the Political Environment on the Growing Child

The political environment refers to the laws, policies, government programs, leadership, and overall governance system that affect the rights, opportunities, and protections available to individuals in society. It plays a crucial role in shaping the quality of life, education, healthcare, protection, and participation of children and adolescents.

For growing children, especially those with disabilities, the political environment can either support their development or create barriers to their growth and inclusion.

Government Policies on Education

A country’s education policies directly impact the availability, quality, and accessibility of education for children.
In India, the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009 ensures free and compulsory education for all children between 6 to 14 years.
Policies promoting inclusive education help children with disabilities attend regular schools with support services.
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 encourages inclusive and flexible learning, use of technology, and emphasis on foundational learning during adolescence.
Political commitment to implementing these policies effectively improves the educational outcomes and social integration of adolescents.

Disability Rights and Laws

Political decisions determine the legal rights and protections for children with disabilities.
The Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPWD) Act, 2016 in India provides for non-discrimination, equal opportunities, accessibility, and inclusion in education, employment, and community life.
The Act identifies 21 types of disabilities and promotes special provisions in schools, colleges, and government services.
Enforcement of these laws depends on political will, awareness, budget allocation, and monitoring mechanisms.
A strong political system ensures that children with disabilities are protected from abuse, neglect, and exclusion.

Health and Nutrition Programs

Political environment affects the public health system, including availability of hospitals, mental health services, immunization, nutrition programs, and adolescent health education.
Programs like Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK) focus on improving health and nutrition among adolescents.
Political support for free or subsidized healthcare, reproductive health education, counseling, and mental health support contributes to overall well-being.
For adolescents with disabilities, the availability of rehabilitation centers, assistive devices, and therapy services depends on government funding and political priority.

Child Protection and Legal Safeguards

Laws related to child labor, child marriage, sexual abuse, trafficking, and exploitation are influenced by the political system.
The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012 and the Juvenile Justice Act are crucial for protecting adolescents.
Adolescents need a political environment that protects their safety, dignity, and freedom from violence.
Children with disabilities are more vulnerable to abuse and must be given special protections under the law, supported by effective implementation and awareness campaigns.

Social Welfare and Economic Policies

Economic policies such as poverty alleviation, employment schemes, and social welfare programs influence the opportunities available to adolescents and their families.
Schemes like mid-day meals, scholarships, disability pensions, and inclusive skill training programs help reduce inequality and support the development of underprivileged and disabled adolescents.
Political decisions related to budget allocations for child development, education, and disability services directly affect how many children benefit from these services.

Representation and Participation

Adolescents need to be heard and represented in decision-making processes that affect their lives.
Youth programs, student unions, child parliaments, and community leadership opportunities are shaped by political structures.
An environment that encourages youth participation, leadership, and civic engagement builds confidence and responsibility in growing children.
Adolescents with disabilities must also be given equal opportunity to participate, express their views, and contribute to society through inclusive platforms.

The political environment, when sensitive and inclusive, can create the foundation for equality, dignity, safety, and opportunity for every growing child.

Disclaimer:
The information provided here is for general knowledge only. The author strives for accuracy but is not responsible for any errors or consequences resulting from its use.

B.ED. HI NOTES PAPER NO - A1 HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

B.Ed. Special Education HI Notes – PAPER A1 HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT, Unit 4: Early Adolescence (From nine years to eighteen years)