B.Ed. Special Education HI Notes –PAPER A1 HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT, Unit 2: Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

Table of Contents

2.1 Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic theories are approaches in psychology that study how unconscious mental processes, early childhood experiences, and emotional conflicts shape human development. These theories suggest that human beings are not fully aware of the real reasons behind their behaviour. Instead, our actions, desires, emotions, and personality are influenced by forces hidden deep inside the mind.

These forces include:
• Unconscious motives
• Unresolved childhood conflicts
• Early relationships with parents
• Repressed (pushed away) emotions
• Internal psychological struggles

Psychodynamic theories highlight that childhood is the foundation of personality. What happens in the early years has long-lasting effects on behaviour, mental health, relationships, learning, and emotional development.

Among all psychodynamic theorists, Sigmund Freud is the most influential. His theory is called the Psychoanalytic Theory.

2.1. 1 Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), an Austrian neurologist, introduced a comprehensive theory of human development. He believed that:

• Personality is shaped mainly in the first five to six years of life
• Human beings are driven by biological instincts, especially sexual and aggressive urges
• The mind has conscious, preconscious, and unconscious levels
• Human personality consists of Id, Ego, and Superego
• Development happens through psychosexual stages

Freud’s theory is important because it was the first to emphasize:
• The role of early experiences
• The science behind emotions and inner conflicts
• The impact of unconscious processes on behaviour
• How childhood trauma affects adult life
• Why some people develop mental health issues

Freud’s theory remains a foundation for psychological and educational understanding of child behaviour.

Structure of the Human Mind (Levels of Awareness)

Freud explained that the human mind works at three levels. These levels help in understanding what we know, what we can remember, and what remains hidden.

Conscious Mind

This is the topmost and smallest part of the mind. It includes all the thoughts, feelings, and information that we are aware of at a particular moment.
Examples:
• Recognizing someone’s face
• Reading a book
• Feeling happy or sad right now

The conscious mind is like the tip of an iceberg—small but visible.

Preconscious Mind

This part contains memories and information that are not in our awareness right now but can easily be brought into the conscious mind when needed.
Examples:
• Your phone number
• The name of your school teacher
• A childhood memory that comes back when someone mentions it

The preconscious acts like a bridge between the conscious and unconscious mind.

Unconscious Mind

This is the largest and most influential part of the mind. It contains:
• Hidden desires
• Repressed memories
• Fears
• Unacceptable thoughts
• Childhood trauma
• Deep emotions
• Unresolved conflicts

We are not aware of these thoughts, but they guide our behaviour. Freud said that most of our mental life is unconscious.
Example:
A person afraid of dogs may not remember the dog bite that happened in early childhood, but the fear continues throughout life.

According to Freud, the unconscious mind is the real driver of behaviour.

Structure of Personality (Id, Ego, and Superego)

Freud believed that personality is formed by the interaction of three components. These three work together but often conflict with each other.

Id

• Present from birth
• Completely unconscious
• Works on the Pleasure Principle
• Wants immediate satisfaction of urges
• Represents biological instincts (hunger, thirst, sex, aggression)

The Id does not think about right or wrong, reality, or consequences. It only seeks pleasure.
Example:
A newborn crying loudly until fed.

Id is the most primitive part of personality.

Ego

• Develops around 2–3 years of age
• Works on the Reality Principle
• Balances the demands of Id and the restrictions of Superego
• Uses logical thinking and problem-solving
• Partly conscious and partly unconscious

The Ego helps the child learn self-control, manage impulses, and behave appropriately.
Example:
A child waits for food because crying may not bring it faster.

Ego is the rational part of personality.

Superego

• Develops around 5–6 years of age
• Represents moral values, cultural rules, and parental expectations
• Works on the Morality Principle
• Judges behaviour as right or wrong

Superego makes the individual feel guilty, ashamed, or proud depending on the action.
Example:
Feeling guilty after telling a lie.

Superego is the moral guardian of personality.

Interaction Between Id, Ego, and Superego

The three components are in continuous interaction:

• Id wants: Pleasure
• Superego wants: Perfection
• Ego wants: Balance

A healthy personality develops when all three are balanced.
If not balanced:
• Too much Id → aggressive, impulsive, selfish
• Too much Superego → overly strict, anxious, guilty
• Weak Ego → easily stressed, confused, emotionally unstable

This explains why children show different behaviours based on their upbringing and environment.

Defence Mechanisms

When a person faces emotional conflict or anxiety, the Ego uses defence mechanisms to protect the mind. These work unconsciously and reduce stress temporarily.

Below are the main defence mechanisms with detailed explanations:

Repression

Pushing painful memories or unacceptable thoughts into the unconscious.
Example:
A child who faced abuse may not remember the event but behaves fearfully.

Denial

Refusing to accept reality because it is too painful.
Example:
A person who is sick denying their illness.

Projection

Putting one’s own negative feelings onto others.
Example:
A student who dislikes the teacher may say, “The teacher hates me.”

Regression

Returning to earlier, childish behaviour during stress.
Example:
An older child starting to suck their thumb after a stressful event.

Displacement

Shifting anger from the real source to someone safer.
Example:
A child scolded at school shouting at their sibling at home.

Rationalization

Creating acceptable reasons for unacceptable behaviour.
Example:
A student failing an exam saying, “The exam was not important.”

These mechanisms show how individuals deal with emotional challenges.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud believed that children pass through five stages, each linked to a pleasure-seeking focus on different body parts. Unresolved conflict in any stage leads to “fixation,” which affects adult personality.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

According to Freud, human personality develops through five psychosexual stages from birth to adulthood.
Each stage is associated with:
• A specific erogenous zone (pleasure-seeking area)
• A developmental conflict or challenge
• Possible fixations (emotional or behavioural issues) if the conflict is not solved properly

Freud believed that how a caregiver handles a child’s needs during these stages strongly shapes future behaviour, personality, and emotional health.

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

Erogenous zone: Mouth
Pleasure activities: Sucking, swallowing, chewing, biting

This is the first stage of development. The infant receives pleasure mainly through the mouth. Feeding experiences (breastfeeding or bottle feeding) become the central part of development.

Key Developmental Tasks

• Trust-building between mother and child
• Learning comfort and security
• Beginning of attachment
• Satisfaction of hunger and oral needs

If the caregiver is responsive, loving, and consistent, the child develops:
• Trust
• Security
• Attachment
• Comfort with the world

If Conflict Occurs (Fixation)

Fixation happens if needs are not met (too little feeding) or met excessively (overfeeding).

Possible adult behaviours due to fixation:
• Nail biting
• Smoking
• Overeating
• Alcohol overuse
• Excessive talking
• Dependency on others
• Passive or clingy personality

This stage plays a major role in the development of trust and emotional bonding.

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

Erogenous zone: Anus
Pleasure activities: Retaining or expelling faeces

This stage is important because toilet training becomes the primary developmental task. The child learns control over bodily functions.

Key Developmental Tasks

• Developing self-control
• Understanding rules and limits
• Learning independence
• Learning to express anger or frustration

If parents use a relaxed, positive method for toilet training, the child develops:
• Independence
• Confidence
• Healthy control
• Sense of order

If Conflict Occurs (Fixation)

Harsh or overly strict toilet training may lead to anal-retentive personality.
Symptoms:
• Perfectionism
• Excessive cleanliness
• Orderliness
• Stinginess
• Fear of making mistakes

Very lenient toilet training may lead to anal-expulsive personality.
Symptoms:
• Messiness
• Carelessness
• Rebellious behaviour
• Lack of self-control

This stage strongly influences how a person handles control, discipline, and independence.

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

Erogenous zone: Genitals
Key concepts:
• Oedipus Complex (boys)
• Electra Complex (girls)
• Identification with same-sex parent

In this stage, children become aware of their bodies and gender differences. They also develop strong emotional attachment to the opposite-sex parent.

Oedipus Complex (for Boys)

Boy feels:
• Unconscious desire for the mother
• Jealousy toward the father
• Fear of punishment from father (called “castration anxiety”)

Resolution occurs when the boy identifies with the father, learns male roles, and internalizes moral values.

Electra Complex (for Girls)

Girl feels:
• Unconscious desire for the father
• Jealousy or competition with the mother
• “Penis envy” (Freud’s idea that the girl feels deprived for not having a penis)

Resolution occurs when she identifies with the mother and learns female gender roles and values.

Key Developmental Outcomes

Proper resolution leads to:
• Healthy gender identity
• Understanding of family roles
• Development of conscience (strengthening of Superego)
• Emotional maturity

If Conflict Occurs (Fixation)

Possible behaviours in adulthood:
• Overconfidence
• Sexual anxiety
• Attention-seeking
• Vanity, pride
• Problems in relationships
• Identity confusion

This stage plays a central role in the development of Superego and gender identity.

Latency Stage (6 to 12 years)

Erogenous zone: No specific zone
Focus of development: Learning, social skills, moral development

In this stage, sexual feelings become inactive or hidden (latent). Children focus more on:
• Schooling
• Friendships
• Social rules
• Moral development
• Sports and hobbies

Energy is channelled toward learning and skill development.

Key Developmental Tasks

• Building peer relationships
• Developing communication skills
• Learning discipline
• Developing values and moral understanding
• Strengthening Ego and Superego

If Conflict Occurs (Fixation)

Usually fixation is rare in this stage because sexual energy is dormant.
But problems may lead to:
• Poor social skills
• Lack of confidence
• Difficulty in teamwork
• Learning challenges
• Emotional withdrawal

Latency is an important stage for academic and social development.

Genital Stage (12 years to adulthood)

Erogenous zone: Genitals (mature sexuality)
This is the final stage, beginning from puberty and continuing throughout adult life.

Sexual energy returns in a mature form. The individual begins to seek romantic relationships and emotional intimacy.

Key Developmental Tasks

• Forming meaningful relationships
• Developing career goals
• Emotional independence
• Mature sexual feelings
• Understanding social responsibility
• Establishing stable personality

A person with healthy development will show:
• Balanced personality
• Self-control
• Good relationships
• Emotional stability
• Responsible behaviour

If Conflict Occurs (Fixation)

Fixations from earlier stages reappear and may cause:
• Difficulty in relationships
• Emotional instability
• Immature behaviour
• Confusion about identity
• Problems with control, trust, or intimacy

This is the stage where overall personality becomes stable if earlier stages were resolved properly.

Importance of Freud’s Theory in Education and Special Education

Freud’s theory helps teachers understand:
• Why children show different behaviours
• How early experiences impact learning
• Why emotional needs must be met
• How to support children with behavioural issues
• The role of home environment in personality development
• How trauma affects memory, learning, and social skills

For Special Education (HI), it provides guidance for:
• Handling emotional problems in children with hearing impairment
• Understanding defence mechanisms in students
• Supporting children with behaviour difficulties
• Providing stable, secure, and emotionally supportive classrooms

2.1.2 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Erik Erikson, a German–American developmental psychologist, proposed one of the most influential theories of human development known as the Psychosocial Theory. This theory explains how individuals develop their personality, identity, social relationships, and emotional understanding throughout their lifespan. Erikson believed that human development continues from birth to old age, and each stage presents a unique challenge or “crisis” that must be resolved for healthy development.

Unlike Sigmund Freud, who focused mainly on biological instincts and early childhood, Erikson emphasized social, cultural, and environmental influences on development. Therefore, his theory is very useful for teachers, counsellors, and professionals working in Special Education, especially to understand children’s social and emotional growth.

Key Principles of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Development Occurs Across Eight Stages

Erikson proposed eight stages, and each stage has a major conflict or psychosocial crisis. These crises must be resolved for positive personality development.

Each Stage Contains a Positive and Negative Outcome

Every stage has two opposing forces:

A positive, healthy direction
A negative, unhealthy direction

If the crisis is resolved successfully, the person develops a strong psychological quality called a virtue.

Social and Cultural Factors Shape Development

Erikson believed that family, society, school environment, culture, and interactions influence how a child grows and learns to trust, behave, and relate to others.

Stages Build on Each Other

Successful resolution of early stages helps in handling later challenges. If earlier stages are not resolved well, difficulties may appear in personality development.

Importance of Erikson’s Theory in Human Growth & Development

Understanding Emotional and Social Development

Teachers can understand why children behave in certain ways depending on their age and developmental stage.

Helpful for Special Education

Children with disabilities may face difficulties in trust, autonomy, self-esteem, identity formation, and social relationships. Erikson’s stages help teachers provide correct support.

Guides Teaching, Parenting, and Counselling

The theory helps adults interact with children according to their developmental needs and provide a supportive environment.

Eight Stages of Erikson’s Psychosocial Development

(Birth to Old Age)

The eight stages include:

Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Integrity vs. Despair

Below, the first stages are explained in detail. The rest will continue in the next responses.

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 Year)

Main Task of This Stage

The infant learns whether the world is safe and reliable. The baby depends completely on caregivers for food, comfort, and affection.

Positive Outcome: Trust

Trust develops when:

The caregiver responds quickly to the baby
The baby feels safe and protected
Needs like feeding, diaper change, and comfort are met regularly

When trust develops, the child becomes:

Secure
Confident
Able to form healthy relationships later

Negative Outcome: Mistrust

If caregivers neglect or inconsistenly respond:

The baby feels insecure
May become fearful or anxious
Has difficulty trusting others later in life

Virtue Developed

Hope – the belief that the world is trustworthy.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 Years)

Main Task of This Stage

Children begin to develop independence. They learn to walk, eat, dress, and explore their environment.

Positive Outcome: Autonomy

Autonomy grows when:

Parents encourage independence
Children are allowed to try things freely
They receive appreciation for efforts

Children develop:

Confidence
Self-control
Sense of independence

Negative Outcome: Shame and Doubt

If parents:

Criticize too much
Do not allow independence
Compare with other children

Then the child may develop:

Low confidence
Fear of trying new tasks
Feeling ashamed or doubting abilities

Virtue Developed

Willpower – the ability to make decisions and act on them.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 Years)

Main Task of This Stage

Children start showing initiative by planning activities, playing pretend games, and taking responsibility for small tasks.

Positive Outcome: Initiative

When children are supported:

They feel free to explore
They gain leadership qualities
They learn to plan and carry out tasks

Such children become:

Creative
Active problem-solvers
Socially confident

Negative Outcome: Guilt

If adults:

Discourage the child’s ideas
Scold for mistakes
Do not allow freedom

Then the child may:

Feel guilty for expressing ideas
Lose confidence
Become dependent on adults

Virtue Developed

Purpose – the ability to set goals and work toward them.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 Years)

Main Task of This Stage

This is the school-age period. Children begin to learn academic skills, social skills, and practical skills. They compare themselves with peers and want to feel capable.

Positive Outcome: Industry

When children:

Receive encouragement from teachers and parents
Get opportunities to participate
Are appreciated for efforts
Experience success in school tasks

They develop:

A strong sense of competence
Confidence in their abilities
Motivation to work hard
Teamwork and cooperation skills

Such children feel, “I can do this. I am capable.”

Negative Outcome: Inferiority

If children:

Are criticized or discouraged
Feel their abilities are less than others
Experience repeated failure
Are compared negatively with peers

Then they may develop:

Low self-esteem
Feeling of being inferior
Lack of confidence
Fear of participating

This affects academic performance and emotional development.

Virtue Developed

Competence – the ability to work hard and achieve goals.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 18 Years)

Main Task of This Stage

During adolescence, individuals try to understand “Who am I?” They explore their values, interests, personality, career goals, social identity, and role in society.

Positive Outcome: Identity

Identity develops when:

Teenagers receive emotional support
They are allowed to explore choices freely
They participate in different roles (student, friend, leader)
They build confidence in their uniqueness

They begin to understand:

Their strengths and weaknesses
Their beliefs and values
Their future goals
Their personal identity

Such individuals develop a clear sense of self.

Negative Outcome: Role Confusion

If adolescents:

Do not receive guidance
Are pressured to accept decisions forcefully
Face strict restrictions
Experience confusion about expectations

They may develop:

Unclear identity
Low self-confidence
Difficulty making decisions
Confusion about future roles

Virtue Developed

Fidelity – the ability to stay true to oneself and maintain personal values.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 to 40 Years)

Main Task of This Stage

During young adulthood, the individual seeks meaningful relationships—friendships, partnerships, and emotional closeness.

Positive Outcome: Intimacy

Intimacy grows when:

A person has a clear personal identity
They trust others
They communicate openly
They build strong emotional bonds

Such individuals can form:

Healthy relationships
Long-term friendships
Stable partnerships
Emotional closeness and support networks

Negative Outcome: Isolation

Isolation occurs when:

A person fears rejection
Lacks trust or emotional openness
Has unresolved identity issues
Cannot build close relationships

This leads to:

Loneliness
Emotional withdrawal
Social anxiety
Difficulty maintaining relationships

Virtue Developed

Love – the ability to form deep, meaningful connections.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 to 65 Years)

Main Task of This Stage

In middle adulthood, individuals focus on contributing to society, supporting the next generation, and being productive.

Positive Outcome: Generativity

Generativity develops when adults:

Support children or younger people
Take part in community service
Contribute to family responsibilities
Guide others through experience

They feel:

Useful
Responsible
Motivated to make a positive impact

Generativity is not only about parenting; it includes teaching, mentoring, and social contribution.

Negative Outcome: Stagnation

Stagnation occurs when individuals:

Feel disconnected from society
Do not contribute to family or community
Lack purpose or motivation
Focus only on personal comfort

This leads to:

Sense of emptiness
Feeling unproductive
Reduced self-worth

Virtue Developed

Care – the ability to nurture others and contribute meaningfully.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (65 Years and Above)

Main Task of This Stage

In old age, individuals reflect on their life and evaluate their achievements, relationships, and experiences.

Positive Outcome: Integrity

Integrity develops when:

People feel satisfied with their life
They accept successes and failures calmly
They feel they lived with purpose
They maintain emotional balance

Such individuals develop:

Wisdom
Inner peace
Acceptance of life’s journey

They feel, “My life had meaning.”

Negative Outcome: Despair

Despair develops when:

Individuals regret past choices
Feel life was wasted
Experience loneliness
Have unresolved conflicts

This may lead to:

Sadness
Fear of death
Bitterness
Loss of hope

Virtue Developed

Wisdom – understanding that life is meaningful despite challenges.

2.2 Behaviourist Theories:

2.2.1 Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory

Introduction to the Behaviourist Approach

Behaviourist theories emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction against approaches that focused on the mind, consciousness, or internal mental states. Behaviourists believed that human development can be scientifically studied only by observing behaviour, not thoughts or feelings, because behaviour is measurable, visible, and objective.

According to behaviourism:

Behaviour is learned from the environment.
Learning occurs through associations, reinforcements, and consequences.
All individuals, whether children or adults, learn in similar ways.

One of the earliest and most influential behaviourist theories is Classical Conditioning, discovered by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist.

Ivan Pavlov: Background and Contribution

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936) was not originally a psychologist. He was a physiologist interested in understanding the digestive system in animals. His pioneering work earned him a Nobel Prize in Physiology in 1904.

How Pavlov Came to Study Learning

While studying digestion in dogs, Pavlov made an accidental discovery that changed psychology forever. He observed that dogs began salivating not only when food was placed in their mouths, but also when they saw the laboratory assistant who usually brought the food. This meant the dogs had learned to associate the assistant with food.

Pavlov realised that:

A natural bodily response (salivation) could be triggered by a previously neutral event.
This must be due to learning through association.

This observation led him to conduct controlled experiments that eventually formed the basis of Classical Conditioning Theory.

What is Classical Conditioning?

Classical Conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus (something that originally does not cause any reaction) with a naturally occurring stimulus that produces a reflexive response.

As a result of repeated pairing:

The neutral stimulus transforms into a conditioned stimulus.
It then produces a learned, conditioned response similar to the natural one.

Easy Definition

Classical conditioning is learning by association, where a natural response becomes linked with a new stimulus.

Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

1. Preparation of the Experiment

Pavlov placed dogs in a quiet, controlled laboratory environment. The dogs were put in a special harness so that their movements did not affect the experiment.
A surgically fitted device collected saliva in a tube, allowing Pavlov to measure salivation exactly.

2. Establishing the Natural Reflex

Pavlov first presented food to the dogs.

Food naturally produced salivation.
This confirmed the unconditioned stimulus (food) and unconditioned response (salivation).

3. Introducing a Neutral Stimulus

Before giving food, Pavlov introduced a neutral stimulus, such as:

A bell,
A tuning fork,
A metronome, or
A light.

This neutral stimulus produced no salivation because the dog had no reason to connect it with food.

4. Pairing the Two Stimuli

Pavlov then created a predictable sequence:

Ring the bell (neutral stimulus).
Present food immediately after (unconditioned stimulus).
Dog salivates (unconditioned response).

This pairing was repeated many times over several days.

5. Formation of Association

Over time, the dog began to understand that the sound predicted the arrival of food.

6. New Learned Response

Eventually, the dog started salivating just by hearing the bell, even when food was not presented.

This was the moment classical conditioning was established.

Key Elements of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning.
Example: Food.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A natural, automatic reaction to the UCS.
Example: Salivation when food is placed in the mouth.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that does not produce any response before learning.
Example: Bell sound (before conditioning).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, starts triggering a learned response.
Example: Bell sound after learning has occurred.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
Example: Salivation at the sound of the bell.

How Conditioning Occurs (The Conditioning Process)

Acquisition Phase

This is the stage where learning takes place.

The neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
With each pairing, the association becomes stronger.
The learner gradually develops a predictable response.

Importance of Repetition

Learning occurs only when the pairing happens many times.
The stronger and more frequent the pairing, the faster the learning.

Timing Between Stimuli

Pavlov discovered that the most effective learning occurs when:

The neutral stimulus (bell) is presented just a few seconds before the unconditioned stimulus (food).
This makes the learner expect what will happen next.

This is called forward conditioning, and it produces the strongest learning.

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning works through several scientific principles that explain how learning is formed, strengthened, weakened, or transferred. These principles help us understand how behaviour develops and changes over time.

Acquisition

Acquisition is the initial stage of learning in classical conditioning.
It refers to the phase during which the neutral stimulus (NS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) are repeatedly paired.

During acquisition:

The association between NS and UCS gradually strengthens.
The learner begins to expect the UCS after hearing or seeing the NS.
The NS eventually becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS).
A new conditioned response (CR) forms.

Example:
Bell + Food → Salivation
After repetition: Bell → Salivation

Extinction

Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
As a result, the conditioned response (CR) gradually weakens and may disappear.

Example:
Bell (without food) repeated many times → Dog stops salivating.

Important point:
Extinction does not erase learning permanently; it only suppresses the response.

Spontaneous Recovery

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

Example:
After extinction, if the bell is rung after a few days, the dog may salivate again.

This shows that the original learning remains inside the brain, even if the response becomes temporarily inactive.

Generalization

Generalization occurs when stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.

Example:
If the dog is conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, it may also salivate to:

A similar tone
A different bell
A similar pitch

Generalization helps explain why individuals react to similar situations in similar ways.

Discrimination

Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli.

Example:
The dog learns to salivate only to a specific bell tone and not to other similar sounds.

Discrimination occurs when only one stimulus is paired with the UCS, and all other stimuli are not reinforced.

Higher-Order Conditioning (Second-Order Conditioning)

Higher-order conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with a new neutral stimulus (NS), creating another conditioned stimulus without involving the unconditioned stimulus.

Example:

Bell + Food → Salivation
Bell + Light → Salivation at Light

The dog learns that the light also predicts the bell, and therefore predicts food.

This shows how learning can expand through multiple layers.

How Classical Conditioning Applies to Human Learning

Although Pavlov studied dogs, his theory applies widely to human behaviour. Many voluntary and involuntary behaviours are formed through classical conditioning.

Formation of Emotional Responses

Humans develop emotional reactions through association:

Fear
Happiness
Anxiety
Disgust
Love
Anger

Example:
A child bitten by a dog may develop fear of:

All dogs, or
Even the sound of barking (generalization)

Development of Likes and Dislikes

People often develop preferences because of past associations.
Example:
A favourite song played during happy childhood moments may evoke joy even in adulthood.

Development of Phobias

Many phobias are learned through classical conditioning.
Example:
Fear of heights, darkness, loud sounds, or animals may develop from negative experiences.

Taste Aversion Learning

Humans may avoid foods associated with illness, even if the food did not cause the sickness.

Example:
If someone eats a food before vomiting (even due to unrelated illness), they may develop aversion to that food.

Taste aversions form quickly and are long-lasting.

Classical Conditioning in Education

Classical conditioning has important implications in classroom teaching and learning.

Creating a Positive Learning Environment

Teachers can associate classroom activities with pleasant experiences.
For example:

Praising students
Encouraging participation
Using interesting teaching aids

These practices encourage positive emotional responses toward learning.

Reducing Classroom Anxiety

Some students fear subjects like Mathematics or languages due to past negative experiences.
Teachers can recondition them using:

Supportive behaviour
Positive feedback
Step-by-step guidance

By creating positive associations, classroom anxiety decreases.

Managing Behaviour

Classical conditioning helps teachers understand behaviour patterns and shape them.

Example:
A child who receives appreciation for maintaining discipline begins to associate self-control with positive reinforcement.

Classroom Routines

School bells signal:

Starting class
Ending class
Lunchtime
Break time

These routines condition students to respond automatically to school signals.

Application in Special Education (HI – Hearing Impairment)

Classical conditioning is extremely helpful in the field of Special Education, especially for students with Hearing Impairment.

Developing Attention through Visual Cues

Students with HI rely on:

Visual signals
Gestures
Facial expressions
Flashing lights
Vibrating devices

Teachers can pair visual cues with learning tasks to develop conditioned responses.

Example:
Flashing a light before giving instructions → Student looks at the teacher.

Building Communication Patterns

Visual behaviour (eye contact, gestures, expressions) can be strengthened using reinforcement.

Example:
Every time a student responds to a visual cue, they receive praise or a reward → conditioning strengthens communication.

Behaviour Management

Classical conditioning helps reduce problematic behaviours through:

Removal of negative triggers
Pairing positive experiences with desired behaviour

Example:
If a child becomes anxious during group activities, pairing group time with enjoyable tasks can reduce anxiety.

Developing Speech Training Routines

For students who use residual hearing or speech therapy:

Auditory cues may be paired with visual cues
Repetition helps them associate sound patterns with lip movements

This helps in speech development.

Real-Life Examples of Classical Conditioning

1. School Bell

Bell (CS) → Packing bags (CR)

2. Fear of Exams

Question paper + Teacher announcement (CS) → Anxiety (CR)

3. Advertising

Beautiful visuals + Product (CS) → Positive feeling (CR)

4. Hospital Anxiety

Smell of medicine (CS) → Fear (CR)

5. Traffic Light System

Red light (CS) → Stopping vehicle (CR)

Role of Classical Conditioning in Human Development

Classical conditioning plays an important role in shaping human behaviour across different stages of development—from infancy to adulthood. Many natural responses, emotional patterns, fears, and preferences are formed through associations.

Influence on Infant Development

Even infants learn through association.
Examples:

A baby smiles when seeing the mother because the mother is associated with comfort and feeding.
Babies become calm when they hear familiar lullabies paired with sleep.

This shows early emotional and sensory learning is based on classical conditioning.

Influence on Childhood Development

During childhood, children form habits, emotional reactions, and social behaviours through conditioning.
Examples:

A child associates going to school with anxiety if scolded regularly.
A child associates studies with happiness if parents appreciate them.
Fear of teachers, animals, darkness, or loud sounds may develop from past negative experiences.

These associations deeply influence personality development.

Influence on Emotional Development

Emotions like fear, joy, anger, love, and disgust often develop through conditioning.
Example:

A child who gets frightened by a barking dog may later fear all dogs.
A child may show excitement when entering a playground because it is associated with fun experiences.

Thus, emotional responses can be strengthened or weakened through experiences.

Influence on Social Development

Many social behaviours—greeting others, maintaining eye contact, participating in groups—are influenced by rewards and repeated associations.
Consistency helps children learn acceptable behaviour patterns.

Influence on Learning and Academic Development

Positive associations with teachers and classroom activities improve learning.
Negative associations (fear, punishment, embarrassment) reduce motivation and affect academic performance.

Importance of Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory

This theory is considered foundational in psychology and education for several reasons.

Scientific Basis for Learning

Pavlov’s experiment was among the first to offer a scientific, objective, and observable explanation for learning.
It proved that psychological processes can be studied systematically.

Foundation for Behaviourism

Pavlov’s work inspired major behaviourist psychologists like:

John B. Watson
B.F. Skinner
Clark Hull

Watson used classical conditioning to explain human behaviour, including emotional learning.

Basis for Therapies and Interventions

Classical conditioning is used in many important therapies:

Systematic desensitization
Exposure therapy
Aversion therapy
Behaviour modification techniques

These therapies help treat anxiety, fears, addictions, and phobias.

Understanding Emotional Responses

The theory explains how emotions are learned.
This helps in understanding:

Childhood fears
School phobia
Examination stress
General anxiety
Social fear

Teachers and parents can use this understanding to create supportive environments.

Practical Use in Classroom Teaching

Teachers use conditioning principles daily—using positive reinforcement, creating predictable routines, reducing fear, and improving motivation.

For example:
A teacher’s smile and encouraging tone paired with learning tasks make children feel safe and confident.

Application in Special Education (HI)

Conditioning techniques support learners with hearing impairments by providing structured and predictable signals, visual cues, and reinforcement systems.

Strengths of Classical Conditioning Theory

Highly Scientific and Objective

Pavlov conducted experiments under controlled conditions.
His methods were:

Precise
Measurable
Replicable

This gives the theory strong scientific credibility.

Explains Involuntary and Automatic Behaviour

Classical conditioning explains reflexive behaviours like:

Fear
Salivation
Emotional responses
Startle reactions
Physiological changes

These behaviours cannot be explained easily by cognitive theories alone.

Useful in Education and Classroom Discipline

Teachers can use conditioning to:

Build positive habits
Reduce anxiety
Encourage good behaviour
Establish routines
Develop communication responses in HI students

Effective in Behaviour Therapy

Used in treating phobias, stress, and behaviour problems through reconditioning.

Universal Across Species

Dogs, humans, and many other animals learn through conditioning.
This shows conditioning is a natural and fundamental learning process.

Limitations of Classical Conditioning Theory

Focuses Only on Involuntary Behaviour

It explains only reflexive responses, not complex behaviours like:

Decision-making
Problem-solving
Reasoning
Language learning

These require cognitive processing.

Ignores Internal Mental States

Thoughts, beliefs, memory, and understanding are not considered, which limits its scope.

Human Behaviour is More Complex

Human reactions are influenced by culture, motivation, emotions, social factors, and intellectual abilities—areas that classical conditioning cannot fully explain.

Ethical Issues in Some Experiments

Conditioning humans to fear (e.g., Little Albert experiment by Watson) raises ethical concerns.

Context-Dependent Learning

Responses may not always generalize.
A behaviour learned in one environment may not appear in another.

Despite these limitations, the theory is extremely valuable for understanding basic learning processes.

Relevance of Classical Conditioning to Behaviourist Theory

Classical Conditioning formed the foundation of modern behaviourism.
Behaviourist theorists expanded Pavlov’s work by adding concepts like:

Reinforcement
Punishment
Operant conditioning
Behaviour modification

Together, these ideas shape how human behaviour is understood and managed in education and psychology.

2.2.2 B. Frederick Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory

Burrhus Frederick Skinner (1904–1990) was one of the most influential behaviourists in the field of psychology. His work played a major role in understanding how human beings learn behaviours through interactions with their environment. Skinner believed that human behaviour is shaped by external factors rather than internal emotions or unconscious motives. For this reason, he focused on observable behaviour, the conditions under which it occurs, and the consequences that follow it.

Skinner rejected the idea that behaviour is only an automatic response to stimuli, as proposed by Ivan Pavlov. Instead, he argued that many behaviours are voluntary actions, performed by individuals to get some form of benefit or avoid unpleasant situations. Such behaviours are called operant behaviours, and the process of learning these behaviours is called Operant Conditioning.

Meaning of Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning refers to a learning process in which the consequences of an action determine whether that action will be repeated or not. The learner plays an active role by performing a behaviour and experiencing its outcome.

The core principle is:

Behaviour → Consequence → Future Behaviour

This means:
• If a behaviour is followed by a pleasant consequence, the behaviour becomes stronger.
• If a behaviour is followed by an unpleasant consequence, the behaviour becomes weaker.
• If a behaviour receives no consequence or no reinforcement, it may gradually fade away.

Operant Conditioning is especially useful for teaching new skills, modifying behaviours, classroom management, and helping learners with special needs, including children with hearing impairment.

Why Skinner Called It “Operant” Conditioning

Skinner used the term “operant” because the behaviour operates on the environment to produce a result. Unlike Pavlov’s classical conditioning, where the learner is passive, operant conditioning views the learner as active.

Examples of operant behaviour:
• Raising a hand to answer a question
• Studying to score well
• Helping others to receive praise
• Working hard for a reward

These behaviours are performed voluntarily and controlled by their consequences.

Skinner’s View of Learning

Skinner believed that learning is not dependent on mental processes like thinking, reasoning, or motivation. Instead, learning occurs because of external reinforcement. People repeat behaviours that are rewarded and reduce behaviours that lead to punishment or no reward.

His view of learning is based on three major ideas:

Behaviour is learned.
Behaviour is controlled by consequences.
Reinforcement strengthens learning more effectively than punishment.

This simple principle forms the foundation of behaviour modification in classrooms, therapy, and special education programs.

Key Components of Operant Conditioning

To understand Skinner’s theory completely, it is necessary to learn its core components.

Operant Behaviour

Operant behaviour is voluntary. It does not happen automatically or reflexively. The learner produces this behaviour intentionally to gain some outcome.

Examples:
• Reading to get good marks
• Cleaning the room to receive praise
• Completing homework to avoid punishment

The behaviour leads to either reinforcement or punishment.

Consequences

Consequences are events that occur immediately after a behaviour. They decide whether the behaviour will be repeated.

Types of consequences include:
• Reinforcement (which increases behaviour)
• Punishment (which decreases behaviour)
• No response (which may lead to extinction of behaviour)

Skinner emphasized that consequences must be immediate and consistent for effective learning.

Reinforcement: The Heart of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement refers to any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behaviour. Skinner considered reinforcement far more effective than punishment.

Reinforcement is of two types: Positive Reinforcement and Negative Reinforcement.

Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement means adding something pleasant after a behaviour. This increases the chances that the behaviour will be repeated.

Examples:
• Praising a child for completing homework
• Giving tokens, stars, chocolates, stickers
• Smiling or clapping when a child responds correctly
• Allowing extra playtime for good behaviour

This method is extremely powerful in classrooms, especially for children with special needs. It encourages interest, motivation, and active learning.

Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement means removing something unpleasant when a desired behaviour occurs. This also increases the desired behaviour.

Examples:
• Stopping scolding when the child starts working
• Turning off a loud noise when the task is completed
• Removing extra chores when behaviour improves

Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment, but it is not punishment.
Negative reinforcement increases behaviour by removing discomfort.

Punishment

Punishment is used to reduce or weaken a behaviour. Skinner identified two forms of punishment:

Type I Punishment (Positive Punishment)

Adding an unpleasant stimulus after a behaviour.

Example:
• Scolding a child for shouting
• Giving extra homework for misbehaviour
• Giving verbal warnings

This reduces the behaviour.

Type II Punishment (Negative Punishment)

Removing something pleasant after a behaviour.

Example:
• Taking away mobile or TV time
• Cancelling playtime
• Taking away tokens or privileges

Punishment may give quick results but does not lead to long-term positive learning. Skinner preferred reinforcement-based methods.

Skinner Box (Operant Conditioning Chamber)

Skinner invented the Operant Conditioning Chamber, commonly called the Skinner Box, to study how animals learn. It usually contained:

• A lever or key
• A food dispenser
• Light or sound signals
• A mechanism to deliver rewards

When a hungry rat accidentally pressed the lever, food was released. Over time, the rat learned to press the lever intentionally whenever it wanted food.

This experiment demonstrated:
• Behaviour is shaped by consequences.
• Learning occurs gradually and systematically.
• Reinforcement is the strongest driver of learning.

Principles Learned from Skinner Box Experiments

Behaviour increases when rewarded.
Behaviour decreases when punished.
Learning occurs through gradual steps.
Consistent reinforcement leads to faster learning.
Behaviour can be predicted and controlled scientifically.

Shaping of Behaviour

Shaping is a method used to teach complex or new behaviours by breaking them into smaller steps and reinforcing each step. Skinner called this method successive approximations. Instead of expecting the learner to perform the full behaviour instantly, teachers reinforce small achievements that gradually lead to the final behaviour.

Shaping is essential for learners who cannot learn a skill in one attempt, such as children with hearing impairment, intellectual disabilities, or developmental delays.

Examples of Shaping in Educational Settings:
• Teaching a child to write the letter “A”: first reinforce holding the pencil, then forming slanted lines, and finally forming the correct shape.
• Teaching speech sounds: reward attempts at making lip shapes, then partial sounds, and finally the correct sound.
• Teaching reading skills: reinforce identifying letters, then blending sounds, then reading full words.

Shaping promotes confidence and a sense of achievement in learners.

Chaining

Chaining is the process of teaching a complex behaviour by linking together smaller units of behaviour. Each step forms a “chain”, and the learner performs them in sequence.

Types of chaining:
• Forward Chaining: Teaching the first step first and moving forward.
• Backward Chaining: Teaching the last step first so the learner gets immediate reinforcement.

Example:
Teaching a child to wash hands:

Turn on tap
Wet hands
Apply soap
Rub hands
Rinse
Turn off tap
Dry hands

In backward chaining, the teacher may complete all steps except the last one and let the child dry hands for reinforcement.

Chaining is very effective in life skills training for special education.

Extinction

Extinction is the process of reducing or eliminating a learned behaviour by stopping reinforcement. If a behaviour no longer receives attention, reward, or response, it gradually fades away.

Example:
If a child shouts in class to gain attention and the teacher stops responding, the behaviour reduces.

Important points about extinction:
• It must be consistent.
• Behaviour may temporarily increase at first (extinction burst).
• Reinforcing alternative positive behaviours makes extinction more effective.

Extinction is used carefully because inconsistency can worsen the behaviour.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Skinner discovered that reinforcement is most effective when delivered according to specific patterns called reinforcement schedules. These schedules decide when and how often reinforcement should be given.

Reinforcement schedules are divided into Continuous Reinforcement and Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement.

Continuous Reinforcement (CRF)

In this schedule, every correct behaviour is reinforced.

• Best for teaching new behaviours
• Leads to fast learning
• But behaviour stops quickly if reinforcement stops (low resistance to extinction)

Example: A teacher praises a child every time they answer correctly.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

In this schedule, reinforcement is given occasionally, not every time. It creates stronger, long-lasting behaviours.

There are four types of intermittent schedules:

1. Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule

Reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses.

Example:
• A child gets a star after writing 10 words correctly.

This schedule creates a high response rate.

2. Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule

Reinforcement is given after a variable or unpredictable number of responses.

Example:
• A teacher gives praise after 3 correct answers, then after 7, then after 5.

This schedule produces the highest and most stable response rate.

3. Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule

Reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time has passed.

Example:
• Giving a break after every 30 minutes of study.

Behaviour increases just before reinforcement time.

4. Variable Interval (VI) Schedule

Reinforcement is given after varying time intervals.

Example:
• Surprise checks in class
• Random teacher appreciation

This schedule produces moderate but consistent behaviour.

Discrimination in Operant Conditioning

Discrimination occurs when the learner learns to respond differently to similar stimuli based on reinforcement history.

Example:
A child raises a hand to speak only when the teacher is present because raising hands is reinforced in that condition. This shows the child can discriminate when the behaviour is appropriate.

In hearing impairment classrooms, visual cues help in discrimination learning.

Generalization

Generalization happens when a behaviour learned in one situation is applied to other similar situations.

Examples:
• A child learns to say “thank you” at school and also uses it at home.
• A child who learns to maintain silence in the classroom also remains quiet in the library.

Generalization is essential for developing social skills and independence.

Stimulus Control

Stimulus control refers to conditions where a behaviour occurs reliably in the presence of a specific stimulus.

Example:
• Students stand up when the bell rings.
• Children sit quietly when the teacher raises a visual card.

Stimulus control helps organize classroom behaviour effectively.

Behaviour Modification Techniques (Based on Skinner)

Skinner’s theory led to practical techniques for changing behaviour:

Token Economy – giving tokens for good behaviour
Time-out – removing a child from reinforcement
Response Cost – removing privileges
Differential Reinforcement – reinforcing only desired behaviours
Behaviour Contracts – agreements between teacher and student

These methods are widely used in special education for behaviour management.

2.3 Humanistic Theory and Social Theory

2.3.1 Abraham Maslow’s Theory

Introduction to Abraham Maslow’s Humanistic Theory

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) is considered the founder of the Humanistic Approach in psychology. His approach became famous because it focused on the positive and healthy development of human beings. While other theories emphasized behaviour, instincts, or unconscious conflicts, Maslow highlighted the innate goodness, potential, and creativity present in every person.

Humanistic thinkers like Maslow believed that:

Human beings are naturally motivated to grow.
Every person has inner potential which must be nurtured.
Human development is not only biological or environmental—it also depends on personal meaning, choice, values, freedom, and motivation.
The goal of human development is to become a self-actualized individual who realizes their highest capabilities.

Maslow believed that all humans—children, adults, disabled individuals, students with hearing impairment—are driven by basic and higher needs, which push them towards personal growth.

Why Maslow Developed the Humanistic Theory

Before Maslow, two major theories dominated psychology:

Behaviourism

Behaviourists (like Skinner and Watson) said that behaviour is controlled by rewards and punishments. They ignored inner experiences.

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalytic theorists (like Freud) focused on unconscious conflicts and childhood experiences. They believed human behaviour is often irrational and driven by instincts.

Maslow felt both theories were incomplete. They forgot that:

Humans are not machines controlled by external forces.
Humans are not controlled only by past trauma.
Humans have freedom, personal choices, and inner strength.
Humans want meaning, purpose, and self-growth.

Therefore, he developed a theory that sees humans as active, creative, capable, and motivated toward excellence.

Core Principles of Maslow’s Humanistic Theory

Humans Have an Inborn Tendency Toward Growth

According to Maslow, every person has an internal force called the self-actualizing tendency. This force pushes individuals to grow, learn, and evolve.

Human Beings Are Basically Good

Unlike Freud who believed that humans have destructive instincts, Maslow said most humans are inherently good, loving, and cooperative when their needs are fulfilled.

Human Behaviour Is Motivated by Needs

Every stage of human development is shaped by the needs people try to fulfill. These needs guide emotions, learning, relationships, and behaviour.

Personal Experiences Matter

Maslow emphasized subjective experience—how people feel, think, and understand themselves. This means two people may behave differently even in the same situation.

Humans Have Free Will

People have the ability to make decisions, take responsibility, and shape their lives. They are not limited by environment alone.

Humans Seek Meaning and Purpose

People want to understand their life goals, values, and personal mission. Development becomes stronger when individuals feel that their life is meaningful.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Highly Detailed Starting Explanation)

Maslow’s most famous contribution is the Hierarchy of Needs, usually explained as a pyramid with five basic levels (later expanded).

Maslow believed:

Needs are arranged from basic to advanced.
Lower needs must be fulfilled before higher needs become strong.
When a need is fulfilled, it stops motivating the person.
Human development progresses step-by-step upward.

Before describing each need, let us understand how Maslow classified them.

Classification of Needs: Deficiency Needs and Growth Needs

Maslow divided needs into two categories:

Deficiency Needs (D-needs)

These arise due to lack or deficiency. If not met, a person feels anxious, incomplete, or frustrated.

These include:

Physiological needs
Safety needs
Love and belongingness
Esteem needs

When these needs are not satisfied, development is disturbed.

Growth Needs (B-needs or Being-needs)

These are higher needs that appear after deficiency needs are fulfilled. They include:

Cognitive needs
Aesthetic needs
Self-actualization
Transcendence

Growth needs help individuals achieve maturity, creativity, morality, and personal fulfilment.

Detailed Explanation of Each Need Level

Maslow’s hierarchy originally had five levels. Later, he expanded it to include eight.
Here is the most detailed version of the five original needs:

Physiological Needs (Most Basic Needs)

These are the foundation of human development. They are biological needs essential for survival, such as:

Food
Water
Air
Sleep
Clothing
Shelter
Health
Rest
Temperature regulation
Avoidance of extreme fatigue

For children with hearing impairment, physiological needs also include:

Proper ear health
Medical check-ups
Nutrition that supports brain development

Maslow believed that no learning or emotional development is possible unless physiological needs are met.

Safety Needs (Need for Protection and Security)

Once physiological needs are met, humans seek safety.
Safety needs include:

Physical protection
Financial security
Health security
Emotional safety
Predictable routines
Stable environment
Absence of fear, stress, or threat

For children with hearing impairment, safety needs also involve:

Accessible communication
Protection from discrimination
Safe classroom environment
Clear instructions for movement and activities

Safety needs ensure that children feel secure and confident.

Love and Belongingness Needs (Need for Relationships)

When a person feels safe, they naturally look for emotional connections.
These needs include:

Family love
Friendship
Affection
Acceptance by peers
Inclusion in social and school activities
Sense of community
Being valued and understood

For hearing-impaired learners, belongingness is very important because they may experience:

Communication gaps
Social isolation
Misunderstanding by peers

Teachers must support inclusion to fulfil this need.

Esteem Needs (Need for Respect and Achievement)

After love and belongingness, humans seek esteem—both internal and external.

Internal Esteem (Self-esteem)

Confidence
Competence
Self-respect
Independence
Feeling of achievement

External Esteem (Esteem from others)

Recognition
Praise
Status
Respect
Appreciation

When esteem needs are satisfied, students develop:

Motivation
High self-confidence
Ability to face challenges
Responsibility

If not fulfilled, individuals may experience:

Inferiority
Lack of confidence
Fear of failure
Weak motivation

This is especially seen in children with hearing impairment who may develop low self-esteem due to communication barriers.

Self-Actualization Needs (Highest Level of the Basic Model)

Self-actualization means:

Becoming the best version of oneself
Using one’s full talents
Expressing creativity
Solving problems independently
Searching for truth and meaning
Achieving personal growth
Living with purpose

Self-actualized individuals show:

Autonomy
Honesty
Creativity
Deep understanding
Emotional maturity
Openness to new experiences

Maslow believed that very few people reach full self-actualization, but everyone strives towards it.

Maslow’s Expanded Hierarchy of Needs (Eight-Level Model)

Originally, Maslow proposed a five-level hierarchy, but later he expanded it into an eight-level model to provide a deeper and more accurate explanation of human development and motivation.
This expanded model includes several new needs that are essential for intellectual growth, creativity, and spiritual development.

The eight levels are:

Physiological Needs
Safety Needs
Love and Belongingness Needs
Esteem Needs
Cognitive Needs
Aesthetic Needs
Self-Actualization
Transcendence Needs

Below is the deepest possible explanation of each additional level.

Cognitive Needs (Desire for Knowledge and Understanding)

After fulfilling basic survival, safety, love, and esteem needs, humans develop a strong inner desire to learn and understand the world around them.

Cognitive needs include:

Curiosity
Desire to explore
Need for knowledge
Understanding cause and effect
Problem-solving
Desire to learn new skills
Understanding concepts, ideas, facts
Intellectual development
Critical thinking

Maslow believed that cognitive needs are essential for:

Educational development
Creativity
Scientific thinking
Lifelong learning

For hearing-impaired learners, cognitive needs may involve:

Access to language development
Visual learning materials
Concept clarification through sign language
Meaningful communication opportunities

If cognitive needs are not met, the child may become:

Bored
Uninterested in learning
Confused
Intellectually underdeveloped

Maslow pointed out that cognitive needs must be satisfied to reach true self-actualization.

Aesthetic Needs (Need for Beauty, Harmony, and Order)

Aesthetic needs refer to a person’s desire to experience beauty, balance, and artistic expression.
These needs include:

Appreciation of beauty in nature
Love for art, music, dance
Desire for order and symmetry
Harmony in surroundings
Creative expression
Engagement with colours, patterns, designs

Maslow emphasized that aesthetic needs are not luxuries.
They contribute to:

Emotional balance
Mental wellness
Motivation
Creativity
Self-expression

For children with hearing impairment, aesthetic needs are often expressed through:

Art
Drawing
Dance
Gesture expression
Visual creativity
Sign language performance

Aesthetic fulfilment enhances their emotional and social development.

Self-Actualization

Self-actualization is not just the highest level; it is the central aim of human life.

Maslow described self-actualization as:

Becoming all that one is capable of becoming
Realizing one’s unique abilities
Using full potential
Achieving peak personal growth
Expressing creativity
Living with inner purpose
Finding truth and meaning

Self-actualization involves many behaviours, attitudes, and qualities:

Qualities of Self-Actualized Individuals

Accurate perception of reality
Acceptance of self and others
Spontaneity and natural behaviour
Problem-centred thinking
Deep interpersonal relationships
Comfort with solitude
Creativity in daily life
Strong ethical and moral values
Autonomous decision-making
Appreciation for life’s small joys
Sense of humour
Desire for knowledge and improvement
Openness to new experiences

Maslow believed that education systems must help learners move toward self-actualization.

For hearing-impaired learners, self-actualization may include:

Mastery of communication skills
Independent decision-making
Creative expression through sign language
Confidence in social interaction
Achieving academic excellence
Discovering their talents (art, dance, sports, academics, teaching, etc.)

Transcendence Needs (Highest Level )

Transcendence is the ultimate stage of human development.
It goes beyond individuality and focuses on helping others grow.

Transcendence needs include:

Desire to uplift others
Spiritual experiences
Compassion for all human beings
Sense of unity with nature or the universe
Commitment to social service
Helping others reach self-actualization
Altruism
Selflessness
Deep moral responsibility
Love for all humanity

Maslow believed that transcendence is the highest form of mental health.

Examples of transcendence behaviours:

A teacher helping disadvantaged students
A social worker serving the community
A self-actualized person guiding others
A parent inspiring children toward excellence
A deaf person becoming a role model for students with hearing impairment

Transcendence gives life purpose and meaning beyond personal achievement.

How Needs Interact (Extremely Deep Insight)

Maslow’s hierarchy does not function in a strict or rigid order.
He explained that:

Needs may overlap
Several needs may operate at the same time
One need can be partially satisfied while another begins to emerge
A crisis can push a person back to lower needs
Growth moves upward, fear moves downward
Higher needs develop slowly, lower needs develop early

For example:

A child may feel love and belongingness even if safety needs are incomplete.
A gifted student may show creativity (self-actualization) despite low esteem.
A child with hearing impairment may need belongingness before safety because peer acceptance reduces anxiety.

Maslow called this continuous movement “hierarchical fluidity.”

Lower Needs vs Higher Needs

To understand Maslow better, it is important to differentiate between:

Lower Needs (Basic or Deficiency Needs)

Must be fulfilled for survival
Produce tension when unmet
Lead to illness, anxiety, frustration
Include physiological, safety, love, esteem

Higher Needs (Growth or Being Needs)

Lead to creativity, purpose, fulfilment
Do not arise from lack
Help in emotional and moral development
Include cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualization, transcendence

Maslow explained that:

When lower needs dominate, behaviour becomes defensive.
When higher needs dominate, behaviour becomes growth-oriented.

Critically Important Concept: Metamotivation

Metamotivation refers to:

Motivation inspired by growth needs
Desire for excellence, truth, beauty, justice, knowledge
Behaviours of self-actualized and transcendent individuals

Unlike basic motivation (which reduces tension), metamotivation enhances:

Creativity
Higher thinking
Moral values
Purposeful living

Examples:

A student studying out of passion, not fear
A teacher motivated by love for children, not salary
An artist creating art for inner fulfilment, not reward

Metamotivation is the driving force of self-actualized individuals.

Characteristics of Self-Actualized Individuals

Maslow identified several qualities commonly found in people who reach the highest level of personal growth. These characteristics are based on his study of healthy, creative, productive, and emotionally mature individuals. The qualities include:

Accurate Perception of Reality

They see situations clearly without misunderstanding, fear, or prejudice. Their understanding of life is based on truth rather than illusion.

Acceptance of Self and Others

They accept their strengths and weaknesses without unnecessary guilt or shame. They also accept others as they are, without unrealistic expectations.

Spontaneity

Their behaviour is natural and genuine. They do not pretend or hide their real emotions. They express themselves honestly.

Problem-Centred Thinking

They focus on solving important problems, not on personal desires or ego. Their actions are guided by meaningful goals.

Sense of Mission or Purpose

They feel that their life has a purpose. This purpose could be related to helping others, creating new ideas, or improving society.

Autonomy and Independence

Their happiness does not depend entirely on others. They maintain emotional independence, inner strength, and self-direction.

Appreciation of Simple Experiences

They enjoy the beauty of everyday life—nature, relationships, meaningful moments—and feel grateful for them.

Deep Interpersonal Relationships

Their relationships are genuine, honest, and based on mutual respect. They may have fewer friendships, but these are strong and meaningful.

Creativity

They express creativity in their thinking, behaviour, and work. Creativity does not always mean artistic skills—it also means original ideas, problem-solving, and flexible thinking.

Resistance to Social Pressures

They do not blindly follow society. They make decisions based on personal values and inner truth.

Ethical and Moral Values

They strongly believe in fairness, justice, honesty, and kindness. Their actions reflect high moral standards.

Sense of Humour

Their humour is gentle and thoughtful, never hurtful or sarcastic. It reflects wisdom rather than mocking others.

Peak Experiences

Maslow described “peak experiences” as moments of intense happiness, creativity, insight, or spiritual fulfilment. These experiences help individuals grow into better human beings.

Peak experiences may include:

Deep emotional connection with nature
Powerful moments of love
Sudden insight or understanding
Artistic inspiration
Spiritual or meditative experiences
Feeling of unity with people, nature, or the universe
Strong sense of satisfaction after achieving a meaningful goal

For learners with hearing impairment, peak experiences can happen through:

Mastery of communication (sign language or speech)
Achievement in academics or arts
Participation in inclusive activities
Creative expression through visual arts or performance

Such experiences motivate them to continue learning and growing.

Educational Implications of Maslow’s Theory

Maslow’s ideas have strong impact on teaching, learning, and school environment. They influence how teachers understand students’ needs and support their overall development.

Establishing a Safe and Supportive Environment

Students must feel physically and emotionally safe in school.
For hearing-impaired learners, this includes:

Clear communication
Respectful interactions
Absence of bullying or discrimination
Predictable routines

A safe environment increases attention, participation, and confidence.

Meeting Physiological Needs at School

Schools should ensure that students’ basic needs are fulfilled. These include:

Proper seating and lighting
Adequate rest breaks
Access to clean drinking water
Healthy snacks if required

For children with hearing impairment:

Regular hearing check-ups when needed
Functioning hearing aids or FM systems
Access to visual learning materials

When physiological needs are met, learning becomes effective.

Supporting Love and Belongingness

Teachers play a key role in making students feel valued. This can be done through:

Encouraging peer interaction
Promoting inclusive group activities
Using positive body language
Treating all students with respect
Creating opportunities for cooperative learning

For hearing-impaired learners, belongingness may require:

Sign language support
Communication-friendly classrooms
Awareness among peers about hearing loss

Feeling included enhances motivation and social skills.

Enhancing Esteem Needs

Teachers can strengthen a student’s esteem by:

Praising effort and improvement
Providing opportunities for leadership
Encouraging participation in competitions, arts, and sports
Giving meaningful responsibilities
Providing constructive feedback
Celebrating individual achievements

For hearing-impaired students, recognition and appreciation reduce feelings of inadequacy and build confidence.

Supporting Cognitive and Aesthetic Needs

The classroom should encourage:

Curiosity
Exploration
Creativity
Critical thinking
Appreciation of art, nature, beauty
Use of visual materials, diagrams, and models
Open discussions and questioning

For students with hearing impairment:

Visual-rich teaching
Project-based learning
Hands-on activities
Artistic expression like drawing, signing, dance, drama

These activities promote intellectual and emotional development.

Helping Students Move Toward Self-Actualization

Teachers must create opportunities for students to:

Discover their talents
Set personal goals
Reflect on their growth
Engage in creative projects
Make independent decisions
Learn through real-life experiences
Develop problem-solving skills

Self-actualization becomes visible when students work with passion, curiosity, and confidence.

Encouraging Transcendence

Schools should also teach values such as:

Empathy
Cooperation
Service to others
Respect for all human beings
Social responsibility

Students learn to contribute positively to society and support others in their growth.

2.3.2 Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, proposed one of the most influential theories of human development, known as the Sociocultural Theory. His work emphasized that human learning and development are deeply shaped by social interaction, cultural tools, and language. Vygotsky believed that a child does not grow in isolation; instead, development occurs through constant engagement with parents, teachers, peers, and the wider community. This theory highlights how culture forms the foundation of cognitive development.

Vygotsky focused on the process of learning rather than the product. He explained that children learn through guided participation in activities with more knowledgeable individuals. These interactions gradually help the child internalize knowledge, skills, and behaviors that are valued in their culture. According to him, the mental abilities we have today are built from social experiences that become part of our thinking system.

Core Assumptions of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Vygotsky’s theory is built on certain key assumptions that explain how development occurs:

Development is a socially mediated process

Vygotsky believed that learning happens first between people. When a child interacts with others—parents explaining a concept, teachers guiding tasks, peers discussing ideas—the child absorbs knowledge through these shared experiences. Only later does this knowledge become internal thinking within the child.

Culture shapes what and how children learn

Every culture has its own ways of teaching, communicating, solving problems, and understanding the world. These cultural practices shape children’s thinking. For example, children in literate societies learn through reading and writing, while in oral cultures children may learn through storytelling, observation, and imitation. Thus, cognitive development is closely linked to cultural experiences.

Language is the foundation of thinking

Vygotsky emphasized that language is not just a tool for communication; it is a tool for thought. When children talk to adults or peers, they learn new words and concepts. Gradually, this external speech becomes internal speech—what we call thinking. Through language, children learn how to plan, reason, solve problems, and control their behavior.

Major Concepts of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The ZPD is one of Vygotsky’s most important ideas. It refers to the range of tasks that a child cannot do alone but can accomplish with help. For example, a child may not be able to solve a puzzle independently but can solve it when guided by an adult or peer. The ZPD identifies the area where the most effective learning takes place—it is the zone where growth is happening.

The ZPD shows that development is not just about what the child already knows, but also about what they are capable of learning with support. Teachers and parents can use the ZPD to provide appropriate challenges that promote growth.

More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)

The MKO is a person who has greater knowledge, skills, or experience than the learner. This could be a teacher, parent, older sibling, expert, or even a more advanced peer. The MKO helps the child perform tasks within the ZPD by providing guidance and support.

The role of the MKO is to offer help at the right level—neither too much nor too little. This guidance pushes the child to achieve tasks they cannot do independently, helping them develop new abilities.

Scaffolding

Scaffolding is the support given by the MKO to help the child learn. Just like a scaffold supports a building under construction, educational scaffolding supports a learner until they become capable of performing the task independently. Scaffolding may include demonstrations, hints, breaking tasks into smaller steps, asking leading questions, or giving encouragement.

As the child becomes more skilled, the support is gradually reduced. This process helps the child gain confidence and competence. Scaffolding ensures that learning is structured, meaningful, and manageable.

2.4 Cognitive Theory

2.4.1 Jean Piaget’s Theory

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who made one of the most influential contributions to understanding how children think, learn, and develop intellectually. His theory explains how thinking abilities grow from infancy to adulthood. Piaget believed that children are not “mini adults,” but active learners who build knowledge step-by-step through experiences.

His theory is especially important in the field of education and special education because it helps teachers understand how children understand concepts, solve problems, and interact with the world.

Background of Jean Piaget

Piaget spent many years observing children and studying the development of human intelligence.
His main idea was that children actively construct knowledge, just like scientists who explore, experiment, and learn from mistakes.
He called this process genetic epistemology—the study of how knowledge grows.

Piaget believed that cognitive development happens in a fixed sequence of stages, and each stage represents a new level of understanding.

Key Principles of Piaget’s Theory

Piaget proposed several important ideas that explain how children learn and develop.

The Child as an Active Learner

Piaget said that children are naturally curious. They learn by doing—touching, observing, experimenting, and exploring.
This means learning is not just about listening but about actively engaging with the environment.

Example:
A child understands the shape of a ball better by holding it, rolling it, or throwing it than by just hearing about it.

Schemas (Mental Structures)

A schema is a building block of knowledge.
It is a mental structure that helps a child organize and understand information.

Example:
A child may have a schema for “bird” → something that flies.

Schemas grow and change as the child gains new experiences.

Adaptation

Adaptation refers to how children adjust their thinking to understand new information. There are two parts:

Assimilation

Assimilation means adding new information into an existing schema.

Example:
A child sees an airplane and says, “Look! A big bird!”
They use their old schema of “things that fly” to understand a new object.

Accommodation

Accommodation means changing the existing schema or creating a new one when new information does not fit.

Example:
When the child learns that an airplane is not a bird, they change their understanding.
Now they have two schemas → “bird” and “airplane.”

Equilibration

Equilibration is the process that brings balance between assimilation and accommodation.
When children face new information that does not match their understanding, they feel imbalance (disequilibrium).
They try to restore balance by modifying their thinking.

This helps them move from one stage of development to the next.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget said that all children go through four universal and sequential stages.
These stages happen in the same order for all children, but the age may vary slightly.

The four stages are:

Sensory-Motor Stage (0–2 years)
Pre-Operational Stage (2–7 years)
Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years)
Formal Operational Stage (11 years onward)

I will explain each stage in detail with examples, characteristics, and educational implications.

Sensory-Motor Stage (0–2 years)

In this stage, infants learn through senses and motor activities. Their thinking is closely linked to what they see, hear, touch, and do. They do not yet use language to represent objects or ideas.

Key Features:

Learning happens through touching, tasting, looking, grasping, and moving.
Infants develop object permanence – understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.
Actions are trial and error: exploring the environment to see results.

Example:
A baby shakes a rattle repeatedly to hear the sound, learning cause and effect.

Educational Implications for Special Education:

Use hands-on activities for learning.
Encourage exploration of different textures, sounds, and objects.
Introduce repetition and interactive play to reinforce learning.

Pre-Operational Stage (2–7 years)

Children begin to use symbols, words, and images to represent objects. Thinking is egocentric, meaning they find it difficult to see others’ perspectives.

Key Features:

Develop language skills rapidly.
Engage in pretend play.
Egocentric thinking – child believes everyone sees the world as they do.
Struggle with conservation – understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance.

Example:
A child thinks that a taller, narrower glass has more water than a shorter, wider one, even if the amount is the same.

Educational Implications for Special Education:

Use visual aids, drawings, and role-play to explain concepts.
Provide concrete examples before abstract ideas.
Encourage activities that develop perspective-taking, such as group storytelling.

Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years)

In this stage, children can think logically about concrete situations but struggle with abstract ideas. They begin to understand rules, cause-effect relationships, and conservation.

Key Features:

Understand conservation of number, mass, and volume.
Can perform mental operations on concrete objects.
Begin to classify objects based on multiple attributes.
Less egocentric; can consider others’ perspectives.

Example:
A child can understand that 8 + 4 = 12 and 12 – 4 = 8, even without using objects to count.

Educational Implications for Special Education:

Use hands-on problem-solving activities.
Encourage group work and experiments to understand rules and concepts.
Introduce simple charts and diagrams to explain relationships.

Formal Operational Stage (11 years onward)

In this stage, children develop the ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically. They can consider hypothetical situations and reason scientifically.

Key Features:

Think about abstract concepts like justice, freedom, and morality.
Solve hypothetical and logical problems.
Plan strategies and test ideas systematically.
Can think about future possibilities and reflect on own thinking (metacognition).

Example:
A student can solve algebra problems, plan an experiment, or discuss moral dilemmas logically.

Educational Implications for Special Education:

Introduce problem-solving and critical thinking tasks.
Encourage debates, discussions, and project-based learning.
Promote independent learning and reasoning skills.

Contributions of Piaget’s Theory to Education

Jean Piaget’s theory has had a profound impact on teaching and learning practices, especially in special education.

1. Child-Centered Learning:

Piaget emphasized that children actively construct knowledge.
Teaching should focus on active learning rather than rote memorization.
Encourage exploration, experimentation, and problem-solving.

2. Developmentally Appropriate Education:

Children learn best when teaching aligns with their cognitive stage.
Avoid teaching abstract concepts to children who are still in the concrete operational stage.

3. Hands-On Learning:

Learning should involve manipulatives, experiments, and interactive activities.
Helps children understand concepts through experience rather than passive instruction.

4. Importance of Play:

Play is critical for cognitive and social development.
Pretend play in pre-operational stage fosters imagination and symbolic thinking.

5. Encouraging Logical Thinking:

In concrete and formal operational stages, children can be taught to classify, analyze, and reason logically.
Promotes problem-solving and decision-making skills.

Strengths of Piaget’s Theory

Explains how thinking develops step-by-step from infancy to adolescence.
Highlights the active role of children in learning.
Provides a framework for educational practices, especially in special education.
Helps teachers design age-appropriate teaching strategies.
Introduces the concept of constructivist learning, which is widely used today.

Limitations of Piaget’s Theory

Underestimates children’s abilities: Some children can perform tasks earlier than Piaget suggested.
Cultural differences ignored: Cognitive development may vary depending on social and cultural context.
Stages are rigid: Development may not always follow a strict sequence.
Language and social interaction: Piaget gave less importance to the role of language, culture, and social learning, which are emphasized in Vygotsky’s theory.

Relevance of Piaget’s Theory in Special Education

Piaget’s theory is highly relevant for teachers working with children with hearing impairment or other special needs:

Individualized Teaching: Teachers can assess the cognitive stage of each child and tailor lessons accordingly.
Concrete Learning Materials: Use visual aids, objects, and manipulatives to teach concepts.
Encourage Exploration: Provide safe opportunities for children to experiment and discover.
Promote Problem-Solving Skills: Encourage children to reason, classify, and make decisions using real-life examples.
Support Cognitive Growth: Understanding schemas, assimilation, and accommodation helps teachers plan activities that promote intellectual development.

Example for Hearing Impaired Students:

Use tactile and visual materials (e.g., building blocks, picture cards) for teaching mathematics or science concepts.
Encourage peer collaboration and guided discovery to improve social and cognitive skills.

2.5 Ecological theory

2.5.1 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner, an American developmental psychologist, introduced the Ecological Systems Theory to explain how a child’s development is influenced by different levels of environment. According to him, development does not happen in isolation. Instead, it is shaped by multiple layers of surroundings, starting from the child’s immediate home to broad cultural and societal influences.

Bronfenbrenner believed that to understand human development, we must study the person in relation to their entire ecological system. The word ecology here means the relationship of the individual with various environments in which they live, interact, grow, and learn.

His theory originally had four systems, but later he expanded it to five major environmental systems:

Microsystem
Mesosystem
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Chronosystem

Each level has a unique role in shaping the cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development of children, including children with hearing impairment.

The Core Idea Behind Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner proposed that human development results from the continuous interaction between the child and the environment. These surroundings are organized like nested circles, where the child is at the center and each system surrounds the next. The closer a system is to the child, the more direct its influence.

These environmental levels interact with each other, meaning a change in one system can create changes in another. For example, conflict at home (microsystem) may affect a child’s performance in school (another microsystem), thereby influencing the mesosystem.

Key Features of Bronfenbrenner’s Theory

Focus on Interaction

The theory emphasizes that development occurs through ongoing interactions between the child and the environments they experience. These interactions are called proximal processes—the everyday activities and relationships that help a child learn, grow, and adapt.

Context-Based Development

Bronfenbrenner highlighted that a child’s development cannot be understood without studying the context in which they live. Context includes family background, school environment, friendships, community support, social policies, culture, and time-based changes.

Importance for Special Education

The ecological perspective is highly relevant for children with hearing impairment because it helps teachers and parents understand how different environmental layers affect communication, learning opportunities, social participation, and adaptive behavior.

The Five Environmental Systems in Detail

Microsystem

The microsystem is the innermost level of the ecological model. It includes the immediate environments where the child directly interacts. These interactions are face-to-face and have the strongest, most immediate influence on development.

Components of Microsystem

Family
School and classroom environment
Peer group
Neighbors
Early intervention or therapy sessions
Playgroups
Child-care centers
Home routines and daily communication patterns

In this system, relationships are bidirectional. This means the child influences the environment, and the environment influences the child. For example, a supportive family encourages the child’s growth, and the child’s progress makes the family feel more positive.

Microsystem and Children with Hearing Impairment

The microsystem plays a crucial role for children with hearing impairment because:

Family communication style affects language development.
Teachers’ attitudes and instructional strategies influence academic growth.
Peer acceptance impacts self-esteem and social confidence.
Early intervention services shape speech, listening, and communication abilities.

Because children with HI rely heavily on visual cues, sign language, gestures, and structured support, the microsystem must be rich in communication opportunities.

Mesosystem

The mesosystem refers to the connections and relationships between two or more microsystems. It explains how different environments that the child belongs to interact and work together.

Examples include:

How parents and teachers communicate
How home environment affects school performance
How peer relationships influence classroom behavior
How early intervention therapists coordinate with family

The mesosystem illustrates that a child develops best when different microsystems form a strong support network. When parents participate actively in school meetings, or when therapists and teachers plan individualized strategies together, the child receives consistent support.

For children with hearing impairment, an effective mesosystem includes:

Regular communication between teachers and family
Collaborative IEP planning
Consistent use of communication modes across home and school
Coordination between audiologists, speech therapists, and educators

A weak mesosystem—such as poor communication between school and parents—may result in inconsistent learning experiences for the child.

Exosystem

The exosystem includes the environmental settings that do not directly involve the child, but still influence their development indirectly. In this level, the child does not actively participate, yet the events and decisions occurring here impact their life.

Examples of exosystem influences:

Parents’ workplace conditions
School administration decisions
Community health services
Local government policies
Mass media
Neighborhood safety
Availability of recreational spaces
Parent–teacher association decisions where the child does not attend

How Exosystem Works

Even though the child is not physically present in the exosystem, it still shapes their experiences. For example:

If a parent works long hours, the child gets less time for communication and bonding.
If the school decides to reduce special education support, the child’s learning is affected.
If a neighborhood is unsafe, the child may have limited opportunities for outdoor play.

Exosystem and Children with Hearing Impairment

Children with hearing impairment are highly affected by exosystem factors such as:

Parents’ awareness about disability
Accessibility of early intervention services
Availability of trained special educators
Government schemes for disability
Health insurance and financial support
Workplace stress of parents that may reduce focus on the child

Even though the child does not directly participate in these decisions, these factors shape communication exposure, educational opportunities, and social participation.

Macrosystem

The macrosystem is the outermost level and includes the larger cultural, social, economic, and political environment that influences all the other systems. This level represents the values, beliefs, traditions, laws, and customs of society.

Components of Macrosystem

Cultural beliefs about disability
Social norms and expectations
National education policies
Economic structure of society
Religious values
Cultural attitudes toward inclusion
Laws and rights related to disability
Technological availability and usage in the country

Influence of Macrosystem on Development

The macrosystem shapes how families raise children, how schools function, and how society views disabilities. For example:

A culture that values education encourages families to support schooling.
A nation that supports inclusive education builds systems for accessibility.
Cultural beliefs about hearing impairment affect acceptance and support.
Economic conditions influence access to cochlear implants, hearing aids, and therapy.

Macrosystem and Children with Hearing Impairment

Children with HI are affected by:

Government disability policies (RPWD Act, inclusive education norms)
Cultural attitudes toward sign language
Societal acceptance of hearing devices
Financial support schemes
Awareness about early detection and intervention

A positive macrosystem promotes equality, accessibility, and respect for individuals with disabilities.

Chronosystem

The chronosystem includes the dimension of time. It refers to life transitions, environmental changes, historical events, and development across the lifespan.

Chronosystem focuses on:

Major life transitions (e.g., starting school, adolescence, marriage)
Family events (e.g., divorce, relocation, death of a parent)
Long-term socio-economic changes
Technological changes over time
Policy reforms and legal developments
Changes in disability support systems across decades

Examples

A child whose parents divorce may experience emotional and social changes.
Introduction of digital hearing aids or cochlear implants can transform communication.
COVID-19 pandemic changed educational environments and therapy delivery.

Chronosystem and Children with Hearing Impairment

Time-related factors significantly impact their development:

Early vs. late diagnosis of hearing loss
Age at which intervention or amplification begins
Long-term exposure to supportive environments
Changes in educational placement (special school vs. inclusive school)
Shifts in societal attitudes toward disabilities over time

Bronfenbrenner emphasized that development is a dynamic process, not a fixed event. Time shapes how all other systems affect the child.

Interaction Between All Systems

Bronfenbrenner’s theory stresses that all five systems continuously interact. Development occurs through a complex web of relationships, not through isolated influences.

Examples:

Cultural values (macrosystem) affect school policies (exosystem), which influence classroom practices (microsystem), shaping the child’s learning.
Parent’s stressful job (exosystem) leads to less communication at home (microsystem), weakening the mesosystem link between family and school.
A change in disability law (macrosystem) improves early intervention services (exosystem), eventually benefiting the child’s communication skills (microsystem).

This interconnectedness is the strength of the ecological model.

Relevance of Ecological Systems Theory to Hearing-Impaired (HI) Children

Focus on Communication Environment

HI children depend heavily on rich communication environments. Bronfenbrenner’s model allows teachers and parents to analyze communication opportunities at multiple levels.

Understanding Barriers and Supports

The model helps identify:

Micro-level barriers (family communication, teacher attitudes)
Meso-level gaps (lack of coordination between school and home)
Exo-level challenges (limited therapy services, poor administration support)
Macro-level issues (cultural stigma, low awareness)
Time-related factors (delayed intervention)

Improving Educational Planning

Teachers can design meaningful IEPs by understanding:

Child’s environment
Family background
Community support
Cultural considerations

Disclaimer:
The information provided here is for general knowledge only. The author strives for accuracy but is not responsible for any errors or consequences resulting from its use.

B.ED. HI NOTES PAPER NO - A1 HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

B.Ed. Special Education HI Notes – PAPER A1 HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT, Unit 2: Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

2.1 Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic Theories

2.1. 1 Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Structure of the Human Mind (Levels of Awareness)

Conscious Mind

Preconscious Mind

Unconscious Mind

Structure of Personality (Id, Ego, and Superego)

Id

Ego

Superego

Interaction Between Id, Ego, and Superego

Defence Mechanisms

Repression

Denial

Projection

Regression

Displacement

Rationalization

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

Key Developmental Tasks

If Conflict Occurs (Fixation)

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

Key Developmental Tasks

If Conflict Occurs (Fixation)

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

Oedipus Complex (for Boys)

Electra Complex (for Girls)

Key Developmental Outcomes

If Conflict Occurs (Fixation)

Latency Stage (6 to 12 years)

Key Developmental Tasks

If Conflict Occurs (Fixation)

Genital Stage (12 years to adulthood)

Key Developmental Tasks

If Conflict Occurs (Fixation)

Importance of Freud’s Theory in Education and Special Education

2.1.2 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Key Principles of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Development Occurs Across Eight Stages

Each Stage Contains a Positive and Negative Outcome

Social and Cultural Factors Shape Development

Stages Build on Each Other

Importance of Erikson’s Theory in Human Growth & Development

Understanding Emotional and Social Development

Helpful for Special Education

Guides Teaching, Parenting, and Counselling

Eight Stages of Erikson’s Psychosocial Development

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 Year)

Main Task of This Stage

Positive Outcome: Trust

Negative Outcome: Mistrust

Virtue Developed

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 Years)

Main Task of This Stage

Positive Outcome: Autonomy

Negative Outcome: Shame and Doubt

Virtue Developed

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 Years)

Main Task of This Stage

Positive Outcome: Initiative

Negative Outcome: Guilt

Virtue Developed

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 Years)

Main Task of This Stage

Positive Outcome: Industry

Negative Outcome: Inferiority

Virtue Developed

Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 18 Years)

Main Task of This Stage

Positive Outcome: Identity

Negative Outcome: Role Confusion

Virtue Developed

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 to 40 Years)

Main Task of This Stage

Positive Outcome: Intimacy